I 



i 



I 




m 



rKONTlSPIECE. 




A Professor eTplainivg the Polite Arts^ to his Pupils. 



A SHORT SYSTEM ^ 



POLITE LEARNING, 



BEINO 

AJ>r EPITOME 
OF THE 



ARTS AND SCIENCES; 



DESIGNED 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 



BY AN EMINENT WRITER OF PHILADELPHIA. 



A iaste of every sort of knowledge is necessary to form the inind ; and ia 
the only way to give the understanding its due improvement, to the full 
extent of its capacity. — Locke. 



% 



NINTH AMERICAN EDITION, IMPROVED. 

^ ■ :'... ':' ^:' 

39fttIaMa)iita : 

PUBLISHED BY M'CARTY & DAVIS, 

NO. 171, MARKET-STREET. 
Stereotyped hy J. Hoice. 

1835. 






Enstem District of Pennsylvania^ to wit : 

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the seventeenth day of April, in 
jfu(t***** the fiftieth year of the Independence of the United States of 
* L. S. * America, A. D. 1826, M'Garty & Davis, of the said district, 
******* have deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right 
whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: 

''A short system of Polite Learning, being an Epitome of the Arts and 
Sciences; designed for the use of Schools. By an eminent writer of 
Philadelphia. 'A taste of every sort of knowledge is necessary to form 
the mind ; and is the only way to give the understanding its due improve- 
ment, to the full extent of its capacity.' Locke. Ninth American Edition, 
improved.'* 

In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled, 
" An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of 
Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, 
during the times therein mentioned;" — And also to the Act, entitled, " An 
Act, supplementary to an Act, entitled, "An Act for the encouragement 
of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the 
Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during tlie times therein men- 
tionetl," and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, en- 
graving, and etching historical and other Prints." 

D. CALDWELL, 
Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, 



In ExchaiigG 
Duke Uaivorsity 

JUL i :i 1933 



I 

^ PREFACE. 

S IN presenting the ninth American edition of this 
K valuable little work to the public, the editors feel 
;>^i gratified to observe, that, though not greatly enlarg- 
ed, it has, in th'feir apprehension, been much im- 
proved. 

Numerous and important additions and alterations 
have been made in various parts of it. Some articles 
have been considerably enlarged— others, propor- 
tionably pruned and condensed. Several have been 
rewritten and corrected ; and not a few entire new 
ones, framed and inserted. The language, punctua- 
tion, and definitions have all undergone a careful 
revision, and been rendered as perspicuous as pos- 
sible ; — the civil divisions, and other particulars in 
the Geographic department, have been duly con- 
formed to present facts ; and the more modem dis- 
coveries and improvements in natural philosophy, 
and other branches of science, introduced, in place 
of the less accurate speculations of former times ; 
while the whole of the numerous and varied items 
which compose its contents, have been so classed 
and altered in their arrangement, as to render the 
work much more systematic and instructive than 
a2 



VI PREFACE. 

any of the preceding editions. And it is, upon the 
whole, confidently believed, that a greater quantum 
and variety of matter, useful, important, scientific, 
and interesting, than this little volunfe now contains, 
is nowhere to be found, within the same compass. 

The work now appears in a stereotype form^ as a 
pledge to our schools, teachers, and other individ- 
uals wishing to avail themselves of it, that a constant 
and regular supply shall, in future, be always at 
their command. . ^■ 

The Arts and Sciences^ by bemg wrapped up in 
the learned languages, and obscured by a multitude 
of technical terms, have long been held beyond the 
reach and capacity, not only of youth in general, 
but of maturer years also ; especially, where the 
advantages of education have been limited. This 
epitome, however, will, it is hoped, bring them to 
the level of the most moderate capacity ; and, with- 
out much expense either of time or money, furnish 
a tolerably correct outline and general idea of all 
the principal branches of useful and Polite Learning 

Philadelphia^ March 25, 1826. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Of Arts and Sciences, ....*'.**...... 9 

Theology, 11 

Religion, , 12 

Philosophy, 14 

Physics, .' 15 

Mechanics, 16 

Hydrostatics, 19 

Specific Gravity, ib. 

Hydraulics, ih. 

Acoustics, ib. 

Pneumatics, ib. 

Meteors, , 22 

Electricity, 23 

Lightning and Thunder, ib. 

The Aurora Borealis, 25 

The Ignus Fatuus, 26 

Wind, 27 

The Rainbow, 30 

Hail, 32 

Snow, 33 

Rain, 34 

Fog and Dew, 35 

Waterspouts, 36 

The Tides, 37 

Earthquakes, 39 

Volcanoes, 40 

Mineralogy, . . . . . . . . . . . , ib. 

Architecture, 44 

Painting, 45 

Sculpture, 48 

Ethics, 50 

Jurisprudence, ib. 

Government, 52 

Politics, t)5 

Commerce, ib. 

Logic, , . 56 



VIU CONTENTS. 

Page 

Rhetoric and Oratory, 59 

Tropes or Figures, 61 

Grammar, 66 

Language, 67 

Poetry, 69 

Music, 77 

Optics, 79 

Mathematics, . .^ f 80 

Arithmetic, 81 

Geometry, , 82 

Metaphysics, / 84 

Astronomy, ib. 

The Solar System, . 85 

The Fixed Stars, 92 

Geography, 93 

Europe, 100 

Asia, • 105 

Africa, 109 

America, 112 

North America, .115 

British Colonies, 116 

United States , ib, 

Mexico, 125 

South America, 126 

The West Indies, 127 

Chronology, 129 

Mythology, 138 

The Celestial Deities, ib. 

The Terrestrial Deities, ..,,,. 144 

The Marine Deities, 148 

The Infernal Deities, 149 

The Subordinate Deities, 152 

The Demi-Gods, 15J 

History, 157 

Physic, 182 

Anatomy, ib. 

Surgery, 183 

Pharmacy, ib. 

Chemistry, ib. 

Botany, 184 

Chemistry, 185 



A 

SHORT SYSTEM 

OF 

POLITE LEARNING. 

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 

Question, What is meant by a Science ? 

Answer. A Science is a system of any branch 
of knowledge, comprehending its doctrine, rea- 
son, and theory ; without any immediate appli- 
cation of it to the uses of life. 

Q. What is an Art? 

A. An Art is a collection of rules and precepts, 
for doing a thing with certainty, ease, and accu- 
racy. 

Science is knowledge in theory ; Art is know- 
ledge in practice. Botany is a science; Garden- 
ing, an art, 

Q. How are the Arts divided ? 

A. The Arts are divided into liberal and 
mechanical. 

Q. What are the Liberal Arts? 

A. The Liberal Arts are those that are in- 
genious, and cultivated without any immediate 
regard to the profit arising from them ; as poetry, 
music, and painting; , rhetoric, grammar, and 
sculpture. 



10 POLITE LEARNING. 

The liberal or polite arts are nearly allied to the 
sciences, and are, indeed, in many instances, the same 
with them. Music, for example, may be ranked either 
with the arts or sciences, or both. As a science, it 
teaches the just disposition, quantity, and relation 
of sounds. As an art, it enables us to express those 
sounds with facility and correctness. 

Q. Why are they called Liberal Arts? 

A. They are termed Liberal Arts because the 
ancients allowed them to be studied only by the 
liberty or free persons. 

In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences, 
was made up of what was then termed. The Seven 
Liberal Arts; viz. Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Music, 
Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy. 

The fine arts are such of the mechanic arts as re- 
quire the union of peculiar ingenuity, taste, and skill, 
in the artist; as, Painting, Sculpture, &c. 

Q. What are the Mechanic Arts ? 

A. The Mechanic Arts are those wherein the 
hand and body are more concerned than the 
mind, and which are cultivated for the sake of 
the profit arising from them : as cabinet-making, 
ship-building, turnery, weaving, masonry, and 
the like ; popularly known by the name of 
trades, 

Q. Why are they termed Mechanic Arts ? 

A. They are denominated Mechanic Arts 
from the latin word [niachznay~\ signifying a 
machine; as they are all practised by the use 
of certain machines or instruments. 

Q. What are the Principal Sciences ? 

A. The Principal Sciences are theology, phi- 



THEOLOGY. 11 

losophy, and jurisprudence; physic, rhetoric, 
grammar, poetry, and mathematics. 



THEOLOGY. 

Q. What is Theology.^ 

A. Theology is the science which instructs 
us in the knowledge of God, and Divine things, 
and teaches us the manner in which we should 
serve our Creator. 

Q. From what is the word Theology derived ? 

A. The v«ord Theology is derived from the 
Greek words [Theos logos,'] signifying the word 
of God. 

Q. How is Theology divided ? 

A. Theology is divided into natural and re- 
vealed. 

Q. What is Natural, and what Revealed 
Theology ? 

A. Natural Theology is the knowledge we 
have of God from his works, from the light of 
nature, and from reason. 

Revealed Theology is that knowledge of God, 
which we obtain from revelation. 

Q. To whom was the title of Theologist, or 
Divine, first given ? 

A. The title of Theologist or Divine was first 
given to St. John, the evangelist ; who was, by 
that title, distinguished from the other three 
evangelists ; because their gospels contain only 
trhe history of Christ, but that of St. John estab- 



12 POLITE LEARNING. 

lishes his eternal divinity ^ as the word of God, 

and his incarnation. 



RELIGION. 

Q. What is Religion ? 

A. Religion is that worship and homage which 
man owes to God, as his Creator, Preserver, and 
Redeemer. 

"The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom; 
a good understanding have all they that keep his 
commandments." ^ DAVID. 

" Be particular not to neglect religion in the educa- 
tion of your children. In vain will you endeavour 
to conduct them by another path. If they are dear to 
you; if you expect from them credit or comfort; from 
religion, must be derived their happiness, and your 
own.'' FATHER GIRDIL. 

" Religion, soother of all our keenest sorrows, source 
and refiner of all our real joys, shed thy heavenly 
influence on our souls; direct, animate, and crown, all 
our pursuits; pervade and consecrate all our thoughts, 
words, and actions: so, shall we answer the design of 
God in our creation, taste true happiness in this life, 
and arise to complete an immortal felicity in the world 
to come.'' ' DR. ASH. 

Q. What is the foundation of Religion? 

A. Religion is founded on the existence of a 
Supreme Beings who requires the love, service, 
and adoration of his creatures. 

Q. Whence do we derive our knowledge of 
the duty and homage we owe to God ? 



RELIGION. 13 

A. We obtain our knowledge of the duty and 
homage we owe to God, from the dictates of rea- 
son and the light of nature, but especially from 
the sacred Scriptures. 

Q. Who is the Author of the Scriptures ? 

A. God himself is the Author of the Scrip- 
tures;— he spake them by the mouths of his 
holy and inspired prophets and apostles. 

Q. Are there not several varieties of Religion 
prevalent in the world ? 

A. There are numerous Religious Sects in the 
world ; but the Jewish, Christian, Mahometan, 
and Pagan, are the four principal ones. 

It is calculated that, of the human family, about 
9,000,000 are Jews, 
170,000,000 Christians, 
140,000,000 Mahometans, 
480,000,000 Pagans. 



Total, .... 800,000,000— 
and that of the one hundred and seventy millions of 
Christians, about 

50 millions are Protestants, 

30 millions, Greeks and Armenians, and 

90 millions, Roman Catholics. 

Q. How is the Jewish Religion founded ? 

A. The Jewish Religion is founded upon the 
law given by Moses to the Israelites, as cop 
tained in the Old Testament, 

Q. Who was the author of the Christian Re- 
ligion? 

A. The author of the Christian Religion, was 
Jesus Christ, the Son of God: who left the 



14 POLITE LEARNING. 

bosom of the Father, to dwell in flesh and blood 
here on earth: where, after performing many 
miracles, and works of beneficence, he was cru- 
cified and buried; but, the third day, he rose from 
the dead; and shortly after ascended to the Father. 

Q. What is the Pagan Religion ? 

A. The Pagan Religion is the idolatrous rites 
performed by the Pagans, or heathen nations ; 
who worship and adore false gods, or give those 
honours to creatures, and the works of man^s 
hand, which are due only to God. 

Q. When, and by whom, was the Mahome 
tan Religion founded? 

A. The Mahometan Religion was founded in 
the seventh century, by the impostor Mahomet; 
whose whole doctrine Is a ridiculous compound 
of Paganism, Judaism, and Christian heresies. 

Q. What are the advantages derived to society 
from true Religion ? 

A. The advantages derived from true Reli- 
gion are many — it inspires sincerity in all men, 
justice in princes, integrity in magistrates, obe- 
dience to the laws, honesty in trade, union in 
families, and, above all, and what is better than 
all, it secures, to those who possess it, everlast- 
ing happiness in the world to come. 



PHILOSOPHY. 

Q. What is Philosophy ? 

A. Philosophy, properly speaking, is the 



PHYSICS. 15 

Science of Wisdom ; or, it is the employment 
of the human mind in examining and explaining 
the nature, modifications and effects of matter y 
the principles of morality^ the operations of 
reason^ and the properties of abstract or 
immaterial things. This last, is called meta- 
physics. 

Q. From what is the term Philosophy de- 
rived? 

A. The term Philosophy is derived from the 
Greek words philos^ to love, and sophia^ wis- 
dom. 

Q. How may Philosophy be divided .'* 

A. Philosophy may be divided into Physics, 
or natural philosophy; Ethics, or moral philo- 
sophy; Logic, and Metaphysics. 



PHYSICS. 

Q. Of what do Physics treat? 

A. Physics, or Natural Philosophy, treat of 
the nature or modifications of matter, and ex- 
plain the various phenomena of the material 
world. 

Physics are also called physiology. 
^ Q. What is Matter? 

A. Matter is the general name of every thing 
or substance that has lengthy breadth^ and thick- 
7iess. 

Q. What are the properties of Matter? 



16 POLITE LEARNING. 

A. The inherent properties of Matter, are 
solidity J divisibility^ Tnobility^ and inertness. 

The solidity of a body prevents any other substance 
from occupying the same place at the same time. 

Divisibility is that property of a t)ody by which its 
parts may be separated. 

Mobility, a capability of being moved. 

Inertness, without a disposition to move. 

To matter also belong the forces of attraction, 
repulsion, and gravity. 

Attraction in bodies is_ their tendency to approach 
each other. 

Repulsion, a tendency to repel, or separate from 
each other; and 

Gravity, the tendency of all bodies towards the 
centre of the earth. 

Q. What is Motion? 

A. Motion implies a continued and successive 
change of place; and without it nothing can be 
produced or destroyed. 

To motion belongs the force that produces it — the 
quantity of matter moving — the velocity and direction — 
the space — the time — and the momentum, 

Q. What is the Centre of Gravity ? 

A. The Centre of Gravity, in any body, is 
that point about which all its parts do exactly 
balance each other. 



MECHANICS. 

Q. What are Mechanics ? 

A. Mechanics are a science which considers 



MECHANICS. 17 

motion and moving bodies, their nature and 
laws, with the effect of mechanic powers and 
their various combinations, in the construction 
of machines or engines. 

' That part of mechanics which considers the 
motions of bodies, arising from weight or gravi- 
ty, is generally called statics, 

Q. What is meant by Mechanic powers? 

A By Mechanic powers are meant those ma- 
chines which are used for raising greater weights, 
or overcoming greater resistances, than could be 
effected by natural strength, without them : the 
power, or strength, being applied to one part of 
the machine ; and the weight, or resistance, to 
another. 

Q. How many Mechanic powers are there ? 

There are six Mechanic powers: the lever, 
the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined 
plane, the wedge, and the screw. 

Q. Please to describe each. 

A. The lever is an inflexible bar, turning on 
a supporting prop, as its centre of motion. There 
are three kinds of levers : 

1. When the prop is between the weight and 
the power ; as, iron-crows, pincers, and scissors. 

2. When the weight, or resistance, is between 
the prop and the power ; as, the oars of a boat, 
and knives which are fixed at the point. 

3. When the power is between the weight and 
the prop ; of which sort, are, the bones of a man^s 
arm, and the wheels of clocks and watches. 

The wheel and axle are contrived chiefly for 
b2 



18 POLITE LEARNING, 

the raising of weights to a considerable height ; 
the power being applied to the rim of the wheel, 
and the weight drawn up by a rope winding 
round the axle. 

T\\Q pulley is a little wheel or rundle, having 
a channel round it, and turning on an axis, Avith a 
rope which rests in its channel, and has the power 
applied at one end, and the weight at the other. 
An assemblage of these is called a system of 
pulleys; some of wliieh are in a block, that is 
fixed; and others in a block, which is moveable, 
and rises with the weight. 

An inclined plane is like tlie chamfered part 
of an edgetool, which is ground down only on 
one side, to the edge. 

A wedge^ in the common form, is like two 
inclined planes, joined together at their bases. 

The sci^ew may be considered as an inclined 
plane, wrapped round a cylinder, which is turn- 
ed by a winch or lever. It is of great efficacy in 
raising weights, or in pressing bodies closely 
together. 

Of these six simple machines, all the most 
compound engines in the world consist. As the 
screw includes the inclined plane, and two in 
clined planes make the wedge, we have all the 
mechanical powers combined in the common 
jack, if it be aided by a fly-wheel ; for, then we 
have also the lever, the wheel and axle, and the 
pulleys. 



PNELMATIGS. 19 

HYDROSTATICS. 

Q. What are Hydrostatics ? 
A. Hydrostatics is that science which treats of 
the weight and action of fluids. 

A fluid is a body whose parts are easily moved among 
themselves, and readily yield to any impression. 

Fluids are either non-elastic and incompressi- 
ble; as water, wine, oil, mercury; or elastic, and 
compressible; as air, gas, &c. 

Q. What is meant by Specific Gravities ? 

A. By Specific Gravities we mean the relative 
weight which equal bulks of difierent bodies, 
have to each other. It is by w^eighing them in 
water, and thus comparing their weight with that 
of water, that the specific gravities are found. 

Q. What do Hydraulics teach ? 

A. Hydraulics teach us how to estimate the 
swiftness and force of fluids in motion. All 
water works, mills, pumps, &c. come under the 
notice of hydraulics. 

Q. What is Acoustics? 

A. Acoustics is the doctrine of sounds. All 
sonorous bodies, whilst sounding, are in a state 
of vibration, and communicate similar vibrations 
to the surrounding air, which thus convey sound. 
[See music] 



PNEUMATICS. 

Q. Of what do Pneumatics treat? 

A. The science of Pneumatics treats of the 



20 POLITE LEARNING. 

mechanical properties of elastic or aerial fluids; 
such as their weight, density, compressibility, 
and elasticity. 

Q. What are the properties of Air? 

A. Air is a transparent, invisible, elastic, and 
compressible fluid, about 900 times lighter than 
water, and capable of almost indefinite expan- 
sion.* It is essential to animal life and the 
growth of plants. 

Q. What is to be understood by the Atmos- 
phere ? 

A. The Atmosphere is all that mass of air 
which encompasses the earth to the height of 
many miles, moves along with it in its annual 
and diurnal motions, in which the clouds and 
vapour float, which is the medium of sound, and 
which we constantly breathe. 

Q. Of what is pure Atmospheric Air com- 
posed ? 

A. Pure Atmospheric Air is composed of three 
gaseous substances: viz. 

Of oxygen gas, . . . 22 parts, ^ ^^^j 

Of nitrogen gas, . . / / parts, V ^^ ^^^er 

Of carbonic acid gas, 1 part, } ^ ' 

100 parts, or pure air. 
(^, What is Oxygen ? 

* Mr. Boyle found by experiment, that air, by its elaj 
ticity, would so expand itself as to occupy 13,769 times 
more space than contained it before. And we know that 
air may be compressed to 128th part of the space it natu- 
rally occupies. Its expansion and compressibility may, 
however, be considered as almost infinite. 



PNEUMATICS. 21 

A. Oxyge»!i is the principle of combustion, and 
the vehicle of heat; and is absolutely necessary 
for the support of animal life. 

Q. What is Nitrogen ? 

A. Nitrogen is chiefly distinguished by its 
being incapable of supporting combustion, or 
animal life. It has the effect of neutralizing, in 
some measure, the properties of oxygen; thus, 
rendering it fit for breathing and promoting com- 
bustion; and is highly favourable to vegetation. 

Q. How is Carbonic Acid Gas produced ? 

A. Carbonic Acid Gas is produced by the res- 
piration of animals, and by combustion. It is the 
proper nutriment of vegetables; which nature 
has endowed with organs for its decomposition. 

One gallon of common air is sufficient for a man 
during the space of one minute, and no longer:*^, 
lighted candle, also, destroys the vivifying quality of 
a gallon of air in one minute, and without a fresh sup- 
ply it will cease to burn. 

Q. Of what . gravity is the Atmosphere, and 
what are its principal effects ? 

A. A quart of Atmospheric air, at the earth's 
surface, weighs sixteen grains ; being 900 times 
lighter than rain water: but, from its great 
height, it presses upon the earth, and all the 
bodies thereon, so powerfully, as to bind them 
down with a force amounting to upwards of fif- 
teen pounds weight upon every square inch: 
hence, it prevents the vessels of animals and 
plants from being too much distended by the 
impetus of the circulating blood and juices. 



22 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. Is the Atmosphere of the same density 
and heat, at all distances from the earth ? 

A. No: the air is lighter, in geometrical pro- 
portion, the higher we ascend ; and its heat also 
decreases, but not in a similar ratio. 

By this loss in gravity, and the consequent 
sinking of the mercury in the barometer, the 
altitude of mountains is ascertained. 

Q. How many Elements does Nature em- 
bosom ? 

A. Formerly we said Nature embosomed four 
elements; earthy water, air, and Jire; but, as 
each of these, except Jire, or caloric, is a com- 
pound body, the elements, or radicals, amount 
to nearly fifty. 



OF METEORS. 

Q. What is a Meteor? 

A. A Meteor is a transient body, or the re- 
semblance of a body, formed in the atmosphere, 
and exhibiting various appearances. 

A. How are Meteors divided ? 

Q. Meteors are divided into three kinds : the 
igneous, aerial, and aqueous. Of th-e igneous 
kind, are lightning, aurora borealis, ignus fatuus, 
and other fiery phenomena. The aerial consists 
of winds. The aqueous are composed of va- 
pours, or watery particles, variously separated, 
and condensed by cold : such are, clouds, hail, 
and snow; rain, waterspouts, dew, and the like. 



ELECTRICITY. 23 



ELECTRICITY. 



Q. What is Electricity ? 

A. Electricity, or the electric fluid, is an ex- 
ceedingly subtile fire which pervades all nature, 
and produces most singular and extraordinary 
phenomena. 

It is the cause of thunder and lightnings of 
the aurora borealis, and, in many instances, of 
earthquakes. 

The science of electricity is the art of moving 
and accumulating this astonishing agent, so as 
to exhibit its various effects. 

All those bodies which readily transmit this electric 
fluid, are called conductors ; and those that do not, 
non-conductors, or electrics. All the metals, semi- 
metals, metallic ores, charcoal, water, and most fluids, 
are conductors of electricity. 

Q. How does it appear that thunder and 
lightning are the efiects of electricity.^ 

A. Dr. Franklin has proved, by a variety of 
experiments, that the lightning of electricity, 
and that which flashes in the clouds during a 
thunder storm, are of exactly the same kind, and 
operate in the same manner. 



OF LIGHTNING AND THUNDER. 

Q. What is Lightning ? 

A. Lightning is a large, bright flame, darting 



24 POLITE LEARNING. 

swiftly through the air; of momentary duration, 
and commonly attended with thunder. 

Q. How is this Meteor accounted for ? 

A. Lightning, in the present advanced state 
of electricity, is universally allowed to be an 
electrical phenomenon : for, as before observed, 
it has been proved by a variety of experiments, 
that the lightning of electricity, and the light- 
ning which glares in^he clouds, are precisely the 
same, both in kind and operation. 

Q. What is the cause of Lightning ? 

A. Lightning is caused by a discharge of the 
superabundant electricity of one cloud into an- 
other, or into some part of the earth which is 
negatively electrified. 

According to the theory of Franklin, when the air 
in one place, is electrified positively,* and in another 
negatively, it causes particular clouds and different 
parts of the earth, to possess opposite electricities; so 
that on their approach within a certain distance, a dis- 
charge is made from the one into the other ; and in the 
discharge, a flash of lightning is observed. 

Q. How is Thunder produced ? 

A. Thunder is produced by a concussion m 
the air, from an electrical explosion; and thi^ 
rattling noise we hear, is probably the effect of 
the sound, carried rapidly by the agitated air 
among the clouds, which hang irregularly around, 
one above another. 

* When any body possesses more than its natural sfiare 
of the electric fluid, it is said to be positively electrified; 
and when less^ negatively. 



AURORA BOREALIS. 25 

Q. What is the reason that thunder is not 
heard till some time after the lightning is seen ? 

A. The reason that thunder is not heard till 
some time after the lightning is seen, is, that 
sound is much longer in arriving at our ears, 
than light is at our eyes : for, light moves almost 
instantaneously; but sound moves only at the 
rate of 1 142 feet in a second. 

Q. I have heard of thunderbolts, and of their 
strange effects: pray, what are they? 

A. What is vulgarly called a thunderbolt, is 
only lightning when it acts with extraordinary 
violence, and breaks or shatters whatever lies in 
its way. When the explosion is high in the 
air, it will do no mischief; but, when near the 
earth, it may kill animals, destroy trees, burn 
houses, &c. 

Q. How can we ascertain its distance? 

A. The distance of Lightning may be esti- 
mated by the interval of time between the flash 
and the noise. The ordinary difference between 
the two is about seven seconds, which, at the 
rate of 1142 feet in a second, gives the distance 
of about a mile and a half; but it sometimes 
comes in a second or two;, which shows that the 
explosion is very near us, or even among us. 



# 



OF THE AURORA BOREALIS. 

Q. What is the Aurora Borealis? 
A. The Aurora Borealis is an extraordinary, 
C 



26 POLITE LEARNING, 

luminous meteor, showing itself in the night al- 
ter a dry season, chiefly in the northern parts of 
the atmosphere; and, hence, the vulgar give it 
the name of northern lights^ or streainers, 

Q. Pray, describe this meteor? 

A. The Aurora Borealis appears most com- 
monly in the form of an arch; partly bright, and 
partly dark; but always transparent, and usually 
of a red colour, inclining to yellow. It sends 
out frequent coruscations of pale light, which 
seem to rise from the horizon in a pyramidical 
and undulating form, and shoot with great velo- 
city toward the zenith, or that point which is 
immediately over the head of the spectator. 

Q. How is it accounted for ? 

A. The Aurora Borealis is deemed an elec- 
trical phenomenon, and supposed to be occasion- 
ed by the flashing of electric fire, from positive 
towards negative parts of the atmosphere, at a 
great distance, and in the upper region, where 
the resistance is least; and that it appears chiefly 
in the northern parts, because the alteration in 
the heat of the air is there the greatest. 



OF THE IGNUS FATUUS. 

Q. What is the Ignus Fatuus ? 

A. The Ignus Fatuus issccfinmon ignited me- 
teor; chiefly seen at night, in\neadows, marshes, 
and other moist places. It is known among the 
vulgar by the appellations, Will'ioith'a'Wispy 
and Jack'With'a'lantern, 



WIND. 27 

Q. How is this phenomenon explained ? 

A. The Ignus Fatuus is ascribed, by late dis- 
coveries, to inflammable air, arising from the pu- 
trefaction and decomposition of vegetable sub- 
stances in water, and taking fire by means of the 
electrical matter contained in fogs. In short, 
positive and negative electricity in the air, with 
a proper quantity of moisture to serve as a con- 
ductor, will readily accoupt for these, as well as 
for falling stars^ so called, and other fiery phe- 
nomena. 



OF WIND. 

Q. What is Wind? 

A. Wind is air put into motion, more or less 
rapid, by which it flows in currents from one 
region to another. 

Q. What are the principal causes of this mo- 
tion or agitation ? 

A. The principal causes of the motion or agi- 
tation of the air, are local alterations in the state 
of the air, by means of heat. For, when the air 
is heated over ftne part of the earth more than 
over another, the warmer or rarefied air becomes 
specifically lighter than the rest, and is therefore 
overpoised by it, and raised upwards; the higher 
parts of it difiusing themselves every way over 
the top of the atmosphere; while the neighbour- 
ing air below, rushes in on all sides, till the equi- 
librium is restored. 

Hence, we mav account also for the ascending 



28 POLITE LEARNING, 

of smoke in a chimney; and for the rushing of 
the air, through the keyhole of a door, or any 
small chink, into a room where there is a fire. 

Q. How are the Winds divided ? 

A. The Winds are divided into four principal 
ones; the east, west, north, and south; which 
take their names from the four cardinal points of 
the world. 

Q. What is the nature of each ? 

A. The east wind is damp; because it comes 
from the bosom of the Atlantic, where it im- 
bibes large quantities of vapour; — the west^ com- 
ing from temperate regions across the American 
continent, is pleasant, pure, and exhilarating; — 
the north wind is cold, because it comes from 
the frigid zone, or countries remote from the in- 
fluence of the sun; — -and the souths coming from 
the torrid zone, is warm. 

Q. Why are the Winds deemed beneficial? 

A. The Winds are deemed beneficial, not only 
on account of their use in movino; various ma- 
chines, and immense importance in navigation, 
but because they serve to purify and refresh the 
atmosphere, to convey the heatibr cold of one 
region to another, and to produce a circulation of 
vapours from the ocean to inland countries. But, 
though their effects, on the whole, may be of great 
benefit, their violence is sometimes very detri- 
mental. 

Q. What is a Whirlwind ? 

A. A Whirlwind is a violent and impetuous 
rushing in of the air from all points, in a circu- 



WiiND. 29 

lar or whirling inanner^ so as to threaten de- 
struction to all around. It is produced by some 
great and very sudden change in a particular part 
of the atmosphere by means of a cloud, or some 
electrical cause. 

When these causes are numerous and very vio- 
lent, accompanied with lightning and thunder, 
the wind becomes so furious and terrible, that it 
overthrows houses, roots, up trees, and destroys 
every thing in its course. This is denominated 
a Hurricane. 

Q. What is the ordinary velocity of Wind.'^ 

A. The velocity of Wind, in what is termed a 
gentle breeze, may be from four to six or eight 
miles an hour; a strong breeze or brisk Wind 
will travel perhaps from ten to fifteen miles an 
hour; and a Hurricane or Tempest, probably not 
less than fifty or sixty miles. 

The Air is often observed, in different regions, 
to move in contrary currents; and this, almost 
always, previous to thunder. 

Q. What are Clouds ? 

A. Clouds are a quantity of condensed va- 
pours, suspended in the atmosphere, 

Q. How are they formed ? 

A. Clouds ai'e formed from a collection of 
watery particles, raised from the earth by solar 
and subterraneous heat. The particles, at their 
first rise, are too minute and separate to be per- 
ceived; but meeting in their ascent, with a greater 
degree of cold, they are condensed' and their parts 
united, so as to reflect light, and become visible. 
C 2 



30 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. At what height do you suppose the Clouds 
to be suspended ? 

A. The Clouds are suspended from about a 
quarter of a mile to two miles in height, accord- 
ing to their specific gravity, and to the elasticity 
or density of the atmosphere. They are frequent- 
ly visible below the tops of very high hills. 

Q. May we then be sometimes above the 
Clouds? 

A. Yes, considerably: in mountainous coun- 
tries, it is no unusual thing to see the clouds 
pouring down in rain upon the vallies below, 
while a clear sunshine is enjoyed around you 
upon the mountains. 

Q. What is the cause of the various forms 
and colours of the Clouds? 

A. The various forms of the Clouds arise 
from their loose texture, which allows them to 
change into any form, according to the different 
currents of the air: and their colour is owing to 
their particular situation with regard to the sun, 
and the different reflections of his light. 

It appears from the observable motion of the 
Clouds, that there are different currents in the 
air, at the same time, and in the same quarter, 
one under the other. 



OF THE RAI>TL(JW. 

Q. What is a Rainbow? 

A. A Rainbow is a meteor in the form of an 



RAINBOW. 31 

arch, exhibited in a rainy atmosphere, opposite 
to the sun. 

Q. Of what colours does it consist ? 

A. The colours of the Rainbow are, begin- 
ning from the upper part, red, orange, yellow? 
green, blue, indigo, and violet; which are called 
the seven primary colours: for all other colours, 
are composed of some of them. 

Every ray of light is a compound body; con- 
sisting of these seven colours; but mixed in such 
proportions, as to produce the appearance of 
white. As these colours possess different de- 
grees of frangibility, they are easily separated. 
Let a ray of light pass through a drop of water, 
and the violet will suffer a greater refraction 
than the red; consequently, they will be separa- 
ted. 

Q. How is the Rainbow formed ? 

A. The Rainbow is formed by the rays of the 
sun being refracted in the drops of falling rain, 
and thence reflected to the eye of* the spectator, 
who is between the sun and the rain. 

Q. How are the various colours produced? 

A. The various colours of the Rainbow are 
produced by the different refractions of the rays, 
transmitted to the eye from several drops; one 
higher than another; the rays least refracted pro- 
ducing red; thosemost refracted, violet; and the 
intermediate ones, the other colours, in the order 
before mentioned. 

Q. I have sometimes observed two bows, one 
above the other; how are these accounted for? 



32 POLITE LEARNING. 

A. When two Rainbows are formed, the inte- 
rior and stronger one is produced by one reflec- 
tion; the exterior and fainter, by two: when the 
latter is visible, its colours lie in a contrary order 
to .the other. 

Q. What part of the whole spectrum, or bow, 
does each of these colours occupy ? 

A. If it be divided into 360 parts, the red 
will occupy 45; tlie orange 27; the 7/ e Haw 48; 
the gi^een 60; tlie o/ue 60; the indigo 40; and 
the violet SO parts. 

Q. How is the lunar Rainbow formed? 

A. The lunar Rainbow is formed in exactly 
the same manner as the other; by the beams of 
the moon falling upon the bosom of a shower. 

Q. How is that lucid ring, called the halo^ 
which we sometimes see diffused around the 
moon, accounted for? 

A. As the halo always appears in rainy or 
frosty weather, we may suppose it occasioned 
by the refraction of light, in the watery, or fro- 
zen particles of the atmosphere. 



OF HAIL. 

Q. What is Hail? 

A. Hail is an aqueous concretion, generally 
round, but sometimes angular, triangular, &c. ac- 
cording to the suddenness of its first formation, 
and the degrees of cold through which it passes 
in its descent. 



SNOW. 33 

Q. How is it produced ? 

A. Hail is produced thus: Particles oi water 
being brought together by the agency of the 
electric fluid, in the upper regions of the air, 
form drops; and these, in their descent through 
a cold atmosphere, are congealed, and form hail- 
stones of greater or less size and density, accord- 
ing to the intenseness of the cold, the quantum 
of water firsl: congealed, and the number of other 
particles which adhere during their descent. 



OF SNOW. 

Q. How is Snow produced ? 

A. Snow is formed in the middle region of 
the atmosphere, by particles of water there con- 
gealed, and to which, similar particles unite and 
still accumulate as they descend through a cold 
air, till they fall to the earth in what we term 
flakes of Snow. 

Q. Why are those flakes so light? 
' A. The lightness of these flakes of snow, is 
owing to the extent of the surface, in compari- 
son with the matter contained under it; as gold 
itself may be extended in surface till it will float 
upon the least breath of air. 

Q. What is the cause of their whiteness? 

A. The particles of ice that compose flakes 
of Snow, being solid, transparent, and difierently 
arranged, reflect the light from every part; and 
thus produce their whiteness. 



34 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. Of what benefit is Snow to the earth ? 

A. Snow furnishes a covering for corn and 
other vegetables, by which they are guarded 
from the intense cold of the air; especially, from 
piercing winds and hard frosts: It also prevents 
the internal heat of the earth from escaping; and, 
when melting, it moistens and pulverizes the 
soil, and thereby promotes vegetation. 



OF RAIN. 

Q. What is Rain? 

A. Rain is a precipitated cloud, descending in 
the form of drops of water; or, it is snow dissolv- 
ed in passing through the lower and warmer re- 
gion of the atmosphere. Rain, therefore, has its 
origin in regions below those of snow and hail. 

Q. How do you account for the various sizes 
of drops of Rain ? 

A. The various sizes of rain-drops, may be 
accounted for as follows: On mountains,* drops 
of Rain, as well as flakes of snow and hailstones, 
are very small; but the more intense the electri- 
city is that forms them, the larger they are. 
Their bulk is also increased from the length of 
their descent through a humid atmosphere, in 
which they attract particles of vapour as they 
fall: for, it is known, that a vessel placed on the 
top of a high tower, will not collect so much 
rain as another of the same dimensions, set on 
the ground. 



FOG AND DEAV. 35 

Q. What are the chief uses of Rain ? 

A. Rain moistens and softens the earth, and 
thus fits it for affording nourishment to plants. 
By falling on mountains, it carries down with it 
many particles of loose earth, which serve to 
fertilize the surrounding valleys: it purifies the 
air from noxious exhalations, which tend, in their 
return to the earth, to meliorate the soil: it also 
moderates the heat of the air; and is one means 
of supplying fountains and rivers. 

Q. Was there any Rain before the flood? 

A. It is supposed there was no Rain before the 
flood, but that the earth was moistened by plen- 
tiful dews or mists: of course, there could have 
been then no rainbow. This meteor is recorded 
in the bible as appearing, for the first time, after 
that great occurrence. 



OF FOG AND DEW. 

Q. What is Fog? 

A. Fog or mist, is a meteor, consisting of 
gross vapours, floating near the surface of the 
earth. 

Q. How is it formed ? 

A. Fog is formed by vapours raised from the 
earth, which meet, at their first entrance into the 
atmosphere, with cold sufficient to condense 
them considerably; and thus arrest their ascent. 
They therefore either remain suspended for a 
time, or return back in a light drizzling rain. 



36 POLITE LEARNING. 

Fogs are only low clouds, or clouds in the 
lowest region of the air; and clouds are nothing 
more than Fogs raised on high. 

Q. How is Dew formed ? 

A. Dew is formed from extremely light and 
subtile vapours, which, as they ascend from the 
earth, become condensed by the coldness of the 
night, before they have arisen to any considerable 
height, and return back in imperceptible drops 



OF WATERSPOUTS. 

Q. What is a Waterspout ? 

A. A Waterspout is a large column of water, 
rising in a spiral form from the agitated ocean, 
with a frightful rushing noise, to a vast height in 
the air. 

Q. What is the cause of this phenomenon ^ 

A. Dr. Franklin ascribes Waterspouts to the 
same cause which produces whirlwinds; namely, 
the rarefaction of the air; and this hypothesis is 
strengthened by the fact that Waterspouts seldom 
appear except in warm climates. 

Q. Do Waterspouts often occur. '^ 

A. In the vicinity of the equator, Waterspouts 
are very frequent; and would often endanger or 
destroy ships, were not means found to reduce 
them before their very near approach. 

Q. How may this be done ? 

A. A Waterspout is easily reduced by the dis- 
charge of a cannon* By this the pressure of the 



TIDES. 37 

surrounding air is decreased both through rare- 
faction and expansion; and the Waterspout re- 
turns upon the ocean, in the form of a heavy- 
rain, or torrent 



OF THE TIDES. 

Q. What is meant by the Tides? 

A. Tides are two periodical motions of the 
waters of the sea; called the flux and reflux, or 
the flow and ebh, 

Q. Please to explain these motions ? 

A. The sea is observed to flow from the equa- 
tor towards the north and the south pole, for 
about six hours; in which motion, or flux, the sea 
gradually swells; so that, entering the mouths of 
rivers, it drives back tlie river waters towards 
their source. After this flux has continued for 
six hours, the sea seems to rest for about twelve 
minutes; and in this state it is called high water. 
When this pause is over, the ebb commences, 
and the sea retires from the poles towards the 
equator, for six hours more; in which time, the 
water sinking, the rivers resume their course 
towards the sea. After this reflux, the sea 
again rests another twelve minutes; and in this 
state, it is called low water, 

Q. How are these phenomena accounted for ? 

A. Tides are occasioned by the attraction of 
the moon, which extends to the earth in so pow- 
erful a manner, as to draw up the waters of the 
ocean in a heap, immediately beneath the moon. 

D 



38 POLITE LEARNING. 

At the same time, the waters on the opposite 
side of the earth, being feebly attracted, the 
neighbouring waters, pressing towards that place, 
swell into a heap, pointing to the opposite part 
of the heaven, and causing the Tides to rise 
at the respective antipodes at the same time. 
Thus, does the moon, in going once round the 
earth in twenty-four hours and three quarters, 
produce two tides or swells, and as many ebbs. 

Q. What are the causes of the Tide rising 
much higher at one time than at another ? 

A. The causes of the Tide's riaing higher at 
one time than at another, are, that about the time 
of the new and full moon, the action of both 
the sun and moon are united, and draw in the 
same straight line, by which means the waters 
are most elevated at these times, and are called 
spring tides; and this elevation is farther in- 
creased the nearer these two luminaries are to 
tlie equator: consequently, the highest spring 
Tides are in March and September. 

The lowest Tides are about the first and third 
quarter of the moon, and are called neap tides: 
for, at these times, the sun and moon act con- 
trariwise; the sun raising the waters at the point 
where the moon causes them to be lowest: so 
that these Tides ai;e occasioned only by the differ- 
ence by which the attraction of the moon, which 
is nearest to the earth, prevails over that of the 
sun. 

Q. Whence proceed their other irregular mo- 
tions ? 

A. The other irregular motions of the Tides 



EARTHQUAKES. 39 

are caused principally by a multitude of islands 
and continents, which interrupt the course of the 
waters, and produce a variety of appearances in 
different places. Were it not for these, as the 
tides are caused principally by the moon, and 
consequently follow her apparent course from 
east to west, and her declination from north to 
south, except the irregularities already mention- 
ed, all the motions of the waters would be uni- 
form. 



OF EARTHQUAKES. 

Q. What is an Earthquake.'* 

A. An Earthquake is a tremendous agitation 
of some considerable part of the earth, attended 
with a noise like thunder; and frequently with 
an eruption of wind or smoke, water or fire. It 
is, undoubtedly, the greatest and most formida- 
ble phenomenon of nature. 

Q. What is the cause of these te^rible phe- 
nomena ? 

A. Earthquakes of a superficial kind, may 
have an electric origin : for, when a part of the 
earth is in a highly electrified state, the approach 
of a non-electric cloud, will produce a sudden 
discharge, and occasion a violent commotion in 
the earth, many miles in compass. But the prin- 
cipal agent of those that are interior and more tre- 
mendous, is subterraneous fire. 

Q. Please to explain those of subterraneous 
origin ? 



40 POLITE LEARNING. 

A. The earth abounds with subterraneous ca 
verns, canals, and veins; some full of exhalations, 
others, ful! of water; and some parts replete 
with nitre, sulphur, bitumen, &c. which produce 
fire : hence, it is easy to conceive the terrible ef- 
fects which may be occasioned from such con-i, 
fined air, or water, when acted upon, and greatly 
rarefied by fire; especially, if it be considered, 
that the expansive force of steam is twenty- 
eight times greater than that of gunpowder. 



OF VOLCANOES. 

Q. What are Volcanoes ? 

A. Volcanoes are burnina; mountains, which 
emit flame, ashes, cinders, stones, liquid sulphur, 
and other substances. 

Q. Are there many of them ? 

A. Yes, Volcanoes are found in all quarters 
of the globe; but the principal of those in Eu- 
rope, a-re Etna, or Gibel, in Sicily; Vesuvius, 
in Naples; and Hecla, in Iceland. It is owing 
to those vents of subterraneous fires, that the ef- 
fects of earthquakes are not more frequent and 
dreadful. 



MINERALOGY. 

Q. Of what does Mineralogy treat? 
A. Mineralogy treats of all fossil bodies; as, 
gold, silver, iron, tin, lead, and coal; besides the 



MINERALOGY. 41 

various kinds of stone: as, marble, diamonds, the 
loadstone, &c. 

Q. Give a short description of the principal 
metals. 

1. A. Gold is the purest, most ductile, and the 
heaviest of all metals, except platina. It is found 
in mines, in various parts of the world; but 
abounds most in the mines of Peru and Chili, in 
South America. 

2. Silver is a white metal ; heavy, sonorous, 
brilliant, and very ductile. It is found in the 
greatest abundance in South America, 

3. Copper is of a red colour; very sonorous 
and elastic, and the most ductile of all the 
metals, except gold. It is found in various parts 
of the world; but particularly in Sweden.* 

4. Iron is universally and largely diffused 
throughout nature; pervading almost every 
thing. It is the chief cause of colour in earths 
and stones, and exists in almost all vegetables 
and animal fluids. 

Iron, though the cheapest, is by far the most 
useful of all the metals. 

When placed, for some time, in contact with 
red-hot charcoal, it becomes much harder and 
more elastic, and is then called steel ; and when 
suspended perpendicularly for a considerable 
period, or acted upon by intense friction, it ac- 
quires the properties of a magnet. 

5. Lead is very heavy, of a livid white 

* A mixture of copper and tin forms bronze : two parts 
of copper and one of zinc, form brass: other proportions 
make prince's metaL 

D2 



42 POLITE LEARNING, 

colour, and tjje softest of all metals. It is exten- 
sively used in making paints; and produces grey, 
white, red, or brown, according to the quantity 
of oxygen with which it is brought in contact. 
It is found in the greatest abundance in England. 

6. Till is a white fusible metal, neither so 
hard as silver, nor so soft as lead. The Tin 
mines in Cornwall and Devonshire (England) 
furnish the greatest part of all the tin consumed 
in Europe. 

Six pounds of brass, with fifteen pounds of lead, 
and a hundred pounds of iron, make the composition 
called pewter. 

7. Mercury or Quicksilver is a fluid matter, 
resembling melted silver. 

In the temperature of our atmosphere, it is 
neither ductile nor malleable. It is the heaviest 
of all metals, gold and platina excepted; is in a 
high degree volatile, and extremely fluid; easily 
adheres to gold, less readily to sih^er, with dif- 
ficulty to copper, but to iron not at all. 

Q. What of the diamond, and other precious 
stones ? 

A. The diamond, called by the ancients, ada- 
raant^ is the most valuable of all the precious 
stones. Its goodness consists in its water or 
colour, lustre and weight. It is found chiefly in 
the mines of Golconda, in Hindoostan; is the 
hardest of all gems, and can be cut only by it- 
self. ^'Diamond, cut Diamond,^^ 

The ruby is next to the diamond in vflue, and 
is of a crimson colour, inclining to purplo. 



MINERALOGY. 43 

The garnet is very like the ruby, and perhaps 
is of the same species. 

The hyacinth is sometimes of a deep red, and 
sometimes of a yellow colom*. 

The emerald is a grass green. 

The beryl J a sea, or bluish green. 

The sapphire^ a sky blue. 

The topaz or chrysolite is of a gold colour. 

All these are transparent: but the cornelian^ 
which is of a pale red or orange colour; the 
onyx^ of a greyish cast; the turquoise^ between 
a blue and a green; and the lapis lazuli^ which 
is studded with spots of gold on an azure ground; 
are opaque, or only half transparent. 

Q. What do you know of the magnet or load- 
stone ? 

A. The magnet or loadstone is found in iron 
mines in several parts of the world: as, China, 
Arabia, Bengal, Hungary, Germany, and En- 
gland; and resembles the ore of iron in appear- 
ance, but is closer and more ponderous. 

Q. What are its properties ? 

A. The magnet or loadstone powerfully at- 
tracts iron, to which it also communicates the 
same attractive power; and every magnet, how- 
ever small or divided, has two poles, one of 
which points to the north, and the other to the 
south. The discovery of the virtues of this 
stone is of the highest importance to navigation 
and commerce. 



44 POLITE LEARNING. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Q. What is Architecture ? 

A. Architecture is the art of building or erect- 
ing edifices: it is of three kinds; Civil, Military, 
arid Naval. Its excellence consists in giving to 
the materials employed, such form and disposi- 
tion as to produce beauty, strength, and conve- 
nience. 

Q. In what does Civil Architecture consist? 

A. Civil Architecture consists in designing 
and building edifices for the uses of civil life; 
as, dwelling houses, churches, and colleges. 
These are constructed agreeably to one of the 
five orders of this art. 

Q What are these five orders of Civil Archi- 
tecture ? 

A. The five orders of Civil Architecture are 
the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Com- 
posite. -These have their names from the per- 
sons or people who invented them; except the 
last, which was invented by the Romans, and is 
a compound of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. 

Besides those five orders, the Gothic^ a fanci- 
ful, yet sublime style of building, is still used in 
the construction of churches and other public 
buildings, not only in Europe and Asia, but in 
America also. 

Q. What is Military Architecture ? 

A. Military Architecture is the art of strength- 
ening and fortifying towns, or other places; so as 
to shield them from the assaults of enemies, and 
the violence of arms, by the erection of forts, 



PAINTING. 45 

castles, and other fortresses, with rampai'ts, bas- 
tions, &c. This art is more usually termed For- 
tification. 

Q. What is Naval Architecture ?^ 

A. Naval Architecture is the art of construct- 
ing ships, galleys, and other floating vessels; 
whether for the service of war or commerce. 
The construction of moles, ports, docks, &c. be- 
longs to this art. 

Q- What are the acquirements necessary for a 
good architect ? 

A. The acquirements necessary for a good 
architect, are an acquaintance with drawing, geo- 
metry, optics, and history. 



PAINTING. 

Q. What is Painting? 

A. Painting is the art of representing- objects, 
by lines and degrees of colours, on an even and 
uniform surface. 

Q. How is this art divided ? 

A. Painting is divided into six parts: the de- 
sign, the proportion, the expression, the clare- 
obscure, the ordonnance, and the colouring. 

Design is the simple contour, or outlines, of 
the figures or things intended to be represented; 
or the lines that terminate or circumscribe them. 

Proj)ortion is the just magnitude of the sev- 
eral members of a figure, a group, &e. ; with re- 
gard to one another, to the whole figure, the 
group, and the entire piece. 



46 POLITE LEARNING. 

The Expression of a piece of painting, is the 
appearance which it has to the eye ; or, the de- 
gree of power which the artist gives it, of con- 
veying to the beholder, a correct idea of the 
object or objects it represents. It ought to be 
natural, lively, and striking. 

Clare-obscure is the art of distributing the 
lights and shades of a piece ; both with regard 
to easing the eye, and heightening the effect of 
the whole composition. 

Ordonnance denotes the disposition of the 
parts of a picture; either with regard to the 
whole piece, or to the several parts. 

Colouring is the manner of applying and 
conducting the colours of a picture; or the mix- 
ture of lights and shades, formed by the various 
colours employed in Painting, 

Q. What are the various kinds of Painting ? 

A. Paintings are distinguished with regard to 
the materials used ; the matter whereon they are 
applied ; and the manner of applying them. 
The principal kinds are as follow: 

Oil-paintings for which the colours are 
ground in nut or linseed oil ; and may be ap- 
plied to canvass, wood, or walls ; stone, glass, or 
metals. 

This discovery, which was made by a Flemish paint- 
er, in the beginning of the 14th century, is of great 
importance to the art; since, by it, the colours of a 
picture are preserved much longer, and receive a soft- 
ness and lustre, which the ancients, to whom it was 
unknown, could never give their pieces, whatever var 
nish they might use. 

Water colours^ or limning^ is a more an- 



PAINTING. 47 

cient art than painting in oil, in which the co- 
lours are mixed with water only; with, some- 
times, the addition of a little sizing. 

Fresco is a kind of painting done with water 
colours, on fresh plaster, or on a wall laid with 
mortar not yet dry ; so that, incorporating with 
the mortar, and drying along with it, the co- 
lours become extremely durable. 

Distemper is a term for painting, when the 
colours are mixed with size, whites of eggs, or 
other proper glutinous, or unctuous substances, 
without oil. 

Miniature is a delicate kind of painting; 
consisting of fine points, or dots, instead of 
lines, and done with thin water colours. 

Encaustic is a species of Painting with burned 
wax. It consists in applying water colours upon 
a coating of beeswax; and when the picture is 
dry, it is put near a fire, by which the wax melts, 
and absorbs all the colours. 

Enamel is a method of Painting with ena- 
mels, or metalline colours, giound and reduced 
to powder, and used, like other colours, with a 
pencil; then fused, baked again, and vitrified by 
force of fire. 

Glass is a kind of Painting similar to enamel; 
the colours being incorporated with the glass it- 
self, by exposing them to a proper degree of 
heat. 

Jlquatinta is a method of etchings on copper, 
lately invented; by which, a soft and beautiful 
effect is produced, resembling a fine drawing in 
water colours, or Indian ink. 



48 POLITE LEARNING. 

Mezzotinto is an ingenious method of repre- 
senting figures, on copper; so as to form prints 
in imitation of Painting in Indian ink. 



SCULPTURE. 

Q. What is Sculpture ? 

A. Sculpture is the art of cutting or carving 
wood and stone into images; and of fashioning 
wax, earth, plaster, &c. to serve as models, or 
moulds for the casting of metalline figures. 

Q. Is not this a very ancient art? 

A. Of the antiquity of Sculpture there can be 
no doubt; since the sacred writings mention it 
in several places: as, in the case of Laban's idols, 
taken away by Rachel; the brazen serpent, made 
by Moses, and the golden calf, by the people of 
Israel. 

Q. What is Statuary ? 

A. Statuary is a branch of Sculpture, employ- 
ed' in making statues. The ancients far surpassed 
the moderns in this art; perhaps, because it was 
more popular, and therefore, more cultivated. 

Q. What are deemed the best specimens of 
Sculpture in England? 

A. The specimens of Sculpture that seem to 
stand highest in England, are — the statues of 
Phrensy and Melancholy, on the piers, before 
Bethlehem hospital; — an elegant statue of Ed- 
ward VI. in bronze, at St. Thomas's hospital, in 
South wark, by Sckeemaker; — another of Sir 
Isaac Newton, at Cambridge, by Roubiliac; — the 



SCULPTURE. 49 

monuments of the duke of Argyle and Mrs. 
Nightingale, by the same artist; — and one of Dr. 
Chamberlain, by Sckeemaker. 

Westminster-abbey is the famous repository of Sculp- 
ture in England; but the figures lose much of their 
effect by being crowded together without order or ar- 
rangement. 

Q. Is it not probable, that Sculpture is more 
ancient than Painting? 

A. There is reason to believe that Sculpture 
is not only more ancient than Painting, but that 
it stood higher in the public esteem also; since 
the ancient painters appear to have imitated the 
statuaries ; and their works have not that free- 
dom of style, especially with respect to their dra- 
pery, which the pencil might easily have ac- 
quired, to a greater degree than the chisel. 

Q. What is Bass-relievo ? 

A. Bass-relievo is a term in Sculpture, signi- 
fying that the figures or images do not stand en- 
tirely above the plane on which they are formed. 

Creux is opposed to relievo; and implies that 
the figure, cut and formed, lies within the plane 
of the plate or substance engraved on. 

A Bust is the portrait of a person, in relievo; 
showing only the head, shoul(^s, and breast. 

Q. Which is the more difficult of these two 
arts, Painting or Sculpture } 

A. Painting has a greater number of requi- 
sites than Sculpture; but, at the same time, its 
expedients are the more numerous; and, there- 
fore, we may venture to affirm, that, whenever 
E 



50 POLITE LEARNING. 

Sculpture pleases equally with a Painting, the 

Sculptor is certainly the greater artist. 



ETHICS. 

Q. What are Ethics? 

A. Ethics, or Moral Philosophy, is the sci- 
ence of morals, or of manners and duty, in all 
our intercourse with our fellow men; whether 
in public or private life. 

Q. What is the design of this science ? 

A. The design of Ethics or moral philosophy, 
is to teach men their duty, and the reason of it; — 
to teach them virtue,* benevolence, prudence, 
fortitude, and temperance; moral obligation, and 
relative duty. 

* Virtue, says Paley, comprehends benevolence, pru- 
dence, fortitude, and temperance; and is the doinff of good 
to mankind, in obedience to the will of God, and for the 
sake of his favour, and of everlasting happiness. 

Here — the good of mankind is the object ; the will of 
God, the rule ; and his favour, with everlasting happiness, 
the end or motive of virtue. 

Benevolence proposes good ends ; prudence suggests the 
best means of attaining them ; fortitude encounters the dif- 
ficulties that lie in our way to them ; and temperance directs 
to the right use or moderate enjoyment of them. 



JURISPRUDENCE. 

Q. What is Jurisprudence ? 

A. Jurisprudence is the science of what is 
just and unjust; or the knowledge of the laws, 
rights, customs, and ordinances, necessary for the 
administration of justice. 



JURISPRUDENCE. 51 

Q. Whence is the word Jurisprudence de- 
rived? 

A. Jurisprudence is compounded of the Latin 
v^ords, JuriSy the genitive case of Jti^'y right^ and 
prudentia^ knowledge or skill. 

Q. How are the laws distinguished ? 

A. The laws are distinguished into the Law 
of Nature, the Law of Nations, and Civil Law. 

Q. What is the Law of Nature ? 

A. The Law of Nature is that which nature 
and reason have taught to mankind; as the power 
of parents over their children. 

Q. In what consists the Law of Nations? 

A. The Law of Nations consists in certain 
rules, sanctioned by all civilized nations, against 
violating hospitality; or encroaching upon the 
privileges of ambassadors, &c. sent by one state 
to another. 

Q. What is Civil Law ? 

A. Civil Law, in professional language, is de- 
rived from the ancient statutes of the Romans; 
but, in a general sense, it is the peculiar law of 
every nation, ordained to provide for the public 
utility, and the necessities of the people, consid- 
ered as a body corporate. When this respects a 
city or borough, which enjoys particular privi- 
leges, it is called raunicipal law. 

Q. Specify the several kinds of law now used 
in England. 

A. The laws of England, are,— 

First, the common law; containing a summary 
of all the rights and privileges in what is called 
Magna Charta, or the great charter of England, 



52 POLITE LEARNING. 

and a reference to those laws which have been 

established by ancient usage. 

Second, statute law: consisting of the statutes, 
acts, and ordinances, of the king and parliamenl. 

Third, canon law; which is a collection of 
constitutions, decisions, and maxims, for a rule 
in church government. 

Fourth, martial law; used in all military and 
maritime affairs. 

Fifth, forest law; which relates to the regu- 
lation of forests and the chase. 

Q. What are the laws now prevalent in the 
United States? 

A. Each one of the United States, is governed 
by laws framed by its own legislature, and by the 
common law of England; but the army and navy 
are regulated, in particular cases, by martial law. 
The laws of congress, also, are binding through- 
out the Union, in ail matters which concern our 
general welfare, as a nation. 



OF GOVERNMENT. 

Q. What is the object of Government? 

A. The object of Government is, or ought to 
be, the protection of the lives, properties, rights, 
and privileges, of the people, collectively and 
individually. 

Q. How many kinds of national Government 
are there? 

A. There are four kinds of national Gpvern- 



GOVERNMENT. 53 

ment, viz. Monarchial, Aristocratical, Demo- 
cratical, or Republican, and Mixed. 

Q. What iiy Monarchial Government ? 

A. Monarchial Government is that in which 
the supreme authority is in the hands of one per- 
son; who is styled a sovereign, emperor, monarch, 
king, prince, &c. 

Of these, some are absolute or despotic in 
their authority; i. e. they have no rule for their 
conduct, but their own loill, and are therefore 
absolute masters of the lives and property of 
their subjects: others are limited; having their 
powers strjctly defined and restrained by the 
laws. 

Q. What is an Aristocratical Government? 

A. An Aristocratical Government is that 
wherein the nobles, or great men of a nation, ex-* 
ercise the supreme authority, without the sufira- 
ges of the people. If their numbers be small, 
it is calkd an oligarch}/, 

Q. What is a Democratical or Republican 
Government ? 

A. A Democratical or Republican Govern- 
ment is that wherein the people have the sove- 
reign authority in their own hands; whence, it is 
delegated, for a given time, to those whom they 
may choose to appoint as their representatives in 
congress, parliament, &c. 

This government, wherein all men, by wisdom and 
patriotism, may equally aspire to posts of honour and 
trust among their fellow citizens, as they may aspire 
to heaven, by the practice of virtue and piety, is the 
only true, free, and Republican Government. 
E 2 



54 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. What is to be understood by a mixed Gov- 
ernment? 

A. A mixed Government is one wherein any 
two, or more, of the preceding forms, are blended; 
as, in Great Britain; where the Government is 
a compound of monarchy, aristocracy, and de- 
mocracy. 

The country under a monarch, emperor, king, prince, 
duke, &c. is called an empire, kingdom, principality, 
dukedom, &c. but that under an aristocracy or democ- 
racy, particularly the latter, is termed a state, repub- 
lic, or commonwealth. 

Q. What appears to have been the earliest 
form of Government among men ? 

A. The earliest form of Government among 
men, seems to have been Patriarchal; or one in 
which the chief magistrate or ruler sustained the 
character of father of his people, 

Q. Into how many branches or departments 
is Government divided ? 

A. Government is divided into three branches, 
viz: the Legislative^ whose business it is to make 
the laws — The Executive; by whom the laws 
are carried into eflect, obedience enforced;, or 
transgression punished — and the Judiciary; 
whose right it is to explain the laws, determine 
controversies between man and man, and pro- 
nounce sentence of penalty or punishment. 

The fundamental laws of a country or state, 
which secure the rights of the people, and regu- 
late the conduct of their rukrs, are termed its 
Constitution, 



POLITICS.— COMMERCE. 55 

OF POLITICS. 

Q. What are Politics ? 

A. Politics are the science of government. 

Q. What is necessary to the forming of an 
able politician ? 

A. An able politician must possess an accu- 
rate knowledge of the whole condition of his 
own, and of every other country; with regard 
to geographical situation, and government; his- 
tory, laws, population, productions, commerce, 
&c. 



OF COMMERCE. 

Q. What is Commerce ? 

A. Commerce is the exchanging of one com- 
modity for another; or it is the buying and sell- 
ing of merchandise, with a view of acquiring 
profit. It appears to be nearly as ancient as the 
world: and at first consisted simply in exchang- 
ing things necessary for life. 

This is, even now, the state of commerce 
amongst the people on the coast of Siberia; in 
Russian and Norw~egian Lapland; and with many 
of the Asiatic and African tribes, as well as of 
those of America. Money was not, at a very 
iearly period, known; nor is it now in use, as a 
medium of trade, amongst the people here men- 
tioned. 

Q. What nations have made themselves most 
famous in commerce? 



56 POLITE LEARNING. 

A. The people most famous in commerce, 
were the Phenicians, Egyptians, Carthaginians, 
and Rhodians; and, in modern times, the Flem- 
ings, Venetians, Genoese, Portuguese, and Dutch; 
but especially the British, and Americans. 

The famous society of the Hanseatic Towns, joined 
n a league, offensive and defensive, is commonly be- 
lieved to have been instituted at Bremen. It was not, 
in the beginning, composed of more than the towns 
situated on the Baltic sea, or of those that were only a 
little distant; but, its reputation increasing, there were 
few of the commercial towns in Europe, that did not 
become of the number. 

Immediately before the great French revolution, 
this society comprised Lubeck, Hamburgh, Bremen, 
Rostock, Brunswick, and some others; but it now, a«J 
well as many other ancient associations, is totally dis 
solved. 



LOGIC. 

Q. What is Logic ? 

A. Logic is the science of correct thinking; 
or, it is the art of using reason well in our in- 
quiries after truth, and in the communication of 
it to others. 

Q. What are the principal operations of the 
mind? 

A. The principal operations of the mind, are 
perception^ judgment y reasonings and disposi 

ti07l, 

Q. Define perceptio7i. 

A. Perceptio7i is the art of apprehending^ 



LOGIC. 57 

seeing, or conceiving in the mind, the existence, 
nature, or properties of what we contemplate, 

Q. What is the result of perception ? 

A. The result of perception is an idea^ or 
mental image; or it is the view which the mind 
takes of objects now no longer present; as, 

The steeple which we saw, and the orator 
whom we heard, though far away, are still be- 
fore the eye of the mind. 

Q. yVhdXis judgment? 

A. Judgment is that operation of the mind 
by which we compare two or more ideas to- 
gether, with a view of determining whether 
they agree or disagree. 

Q. What is a judgment expressed in words, 
called ? 

A. A judgment expressed in words, is called 
di proposition; of which there are several kinds; 
viz. — 1. ^Affirmative; as, Man is an intelligent 
being; — 2. Negative; as. Birds and beasts do 
not reason; — 3. Conditional; as, If we rise early, 
we shall save time. 

Q. What is reasoning? 

A. Reasonings or argumentation, is that oper- 
ation of the mind by which we draw our conclu- 
sions on any subject that is not, in itself clear, 
by comparing it with other similar subjects, that 
are clear, known, and evident. 

Q. What are these conclusions^ or acts of 
reasoning, called? 

A. These conclusions^ or acts of reasoning, 
when just, are called syllogisms ; when false, 
sophisms. 



5S POLITE LEARNING. 

EXAMPLES. 

No virtuous man is a slandei:er: 

But Sileno and Garrulous are both slanderers; 

Therefore, neither of them is a virtuous man. 

j3 Syllogism. 

A church is a building of stone: 

A religious assembly is a church; 

Therefore, a religious assembly is a building 
of stone. A Sophism. 

If the sun be risen, the night is past: 

But the night is not past; 

Therefore, the sun is not risen. 

•/? Syllogism. 

A goose goes upon two feet: 

Stultus goes upon two feet; 

Therefore, Stultus is a goose. A Sophism. 

Q. What is disposition? 

A. Disposition^ or arrangement, is the order in 
which we place our per^ceptions and reasonings 
on any subject, with a view of getting the clear- 
est knowledge of it ourselves, retaining it best 
in our memory, and communicating it most ef- 
fectually to others. 

Our pe7'ceptions should be clear and distinct y 
full and comprehensive; and orderly in their ar- 
rangement. 

Q. To whom is the art of Logic nK)st useful ? 

A. Logic is useful to all men; but especially 
to preachers, lawyers, legislators, and those who 
are called to reason with, and instruct others. 

All who think and judge for themselves, 
♦^^ough they may be unconscious of it, are con-* 



RHETORIC AND ORATORY. 59 

stantly 'using logic; though it may not be meth- 
odized by art. 



RHETORIC AND ORATORY. 

Q. What is Rhetoric? 

A. Rhetoric or Oratory y is the art of speak- 
ing justly, methodically, and elegantly upon any 
subject, so as to please, persuade, and instruct. 
A speech made or delivered according to the 
rules of this art, is called an oration, and the 
speaker, an orator, 

Q. What are the qualifications of a good ora- 
tor? 

A. A good orator should possess the five fol- 
lowing requisites: 

1. Memory J to enable him to retain what he 
has to advance till the proper time and place for 
introducing it. 

2. Logic J or a logical mindy to direct to the 
right use of his reasoning powers. 

3. Invention^ to enable him to find out and 
frame such arguments as are best adapted to 
convince, persuade, instruct, conciliate, and gain 
belief. 

4. Disposition^ whereby he may arrange his 
arguments in the most advantageous manner. 

5. Elocution, which implies a clear and dis- 
tinct enunciation, just time and action, proper 
tones and emphasis, with appropriate, harmoni- 



60 POLITE LEARNING. 

ous language, loud enough to be well heard and 

understood.* "^^^ 

Q. How many parts has an Oration? 

A. An Oration has five parts, viz: — ^the 
Exordium, Narration, Confirmation, Refutation, 
and Peroration. 

Q. What is the Exordium? 

A. The Exordium^ or Preamble, is the begin- 
ning of the Oration, designed to secure the atten- 
tion of the hearers, gain their good opinion, and 
give them a general idea of the subject. It should 
be brief, modest, and perspicuous. 

The Narration is a recital of facts as they oc- 
curred, or are supposed to have occurred. It 
should be made as probable, perspicuous, inter 
esting, and concise as possible. 

The Confirmation is the establishing of the 
truth, or proposition, as advanced in the Narra- 
tion. 

The Refutation — which should ever be lively 
and pungent — is the refelling of the arguments 
of the opposing party, by shewing them to be 
false, unsound, or inconclusive. 

The Peroration^ or conclusion, recapitulates 
the principal arguments, in a concise, forcible, 

* Elocution comprises, 

1st. Composition or the grammatical arrangement, plain- 
ness, and propriety of language. 

2d. Elegance ; which consists in the purity, perspicuity, 
and politeness of language, and is gained chiefly by studying 
the most correct writers, conversing with polite, well in- 
formed people, and making frequent and careful essays in 
composition. 

3d. Dignity; which adorns language with sublime 
thoughts, rhetorical figures, &c. 



TROPES OR FIGURES. 61 ' 

and impressive manner, so as to excite the feel- 
ings, and awaken love, pity, or hatred. 

Rhetoricians advise, to place some of the most pow- 
erful arguments first, and the feebler next, reserving 
some of the best for the last. 



TROPES OR FIGURES. 

Q. What do Tropes or Figures of Speech 
denote } 

A. Tropes or Figures of Speech always de- 
note some departure from simplicity of expres- 
sion. They exhibit ideas in a manner more 
vivid and impressive than could easily be done 
by plain language. 

Example. 

A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of ad- 
versity. This is simple language; but when I say 
— ^^To the upright, there ariseth light in dark- 
ness,^^ I use figurative language, and express the 
same sentiment in a more elegant and impress- 
ive manner. 

Q. What effects have Tropes or Figures 
upon language? 

A. Tropes or Figures greatly enliven, beau- 
tify, and enrich language, by furnishing a multi- 
tude of words and phrases, suited to express our 
ideas in all their varieties of shade and difference, 
and which it would be almost impossible to do, 
without such figures. 

Q. Can you enumerate these figures } 

A, Yes — the principal Tropes or Figures are — 



62 POLITE LEARNING. 

Personification^ Apostrophe^ Simile^ Meta- 
phor^ Allegory^ Irony ^ Hyperbole^ Climax^ 
Antithesis^ Metonomy^ and Synecdoche. 
Please to explain each of these Figures. 

Personification is the bestowing of sensation, 
life, or action, upon things inanimate. 

EXAMPLES. 

The earth thirsts for rain. 

Cheer'd with the grateful smelly old ocean smiles. 

Behold, the morn^ in russet mantle clad. 

Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 

At his command, the uprooted hills retired* 

Each to his place: they heardhxs voice, and went 

Obsequious. Hill and valley smiPd. 

Ye woods and wilds ^ whose melancholy gloom 

Accords with my souPs sadness, and draws fortlx 

The voice of sorrow from my bursting heart. 

Farewell awhile: I will not leave you long. 

The Apostrophe bestows an ideal presence 
upon real persons who are either dead or absent 
It addresses them as if actually present. 

EXAMPLES. 

Retire, for it is night, viy love^ and the dark 
winds sigh in thy hair. Retire to the hall of 
my feasts, and think of the times that are past; 
for I will not return until the storm of war is 
gone. — Ossian, 

Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid 
of Inistore: bend thy fair head over the waves, 
thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it 
moves in a sunbeam at noon, o'er the silence of 



TROPES OR FIGURES. 63 

Morven. He is fallen! Thy youth is low, — 
pale beneath the sword of Cuchullin. — Ossian. 

A Simile is a comparison by which any 
thing is illustrated. This figure, equally familiar 
and beautiful, discovers resemblances, real or 
imaginary, between objects or actions, which in 
their general nature, are dissimilar. 

EXAMPLES. 

The music of Caryl^ was, like the mem,ory 
of joys that are past ^ pleasant and mournful to 
the soul. 

Often, like the evening sun, comes the mem,- 
ory of former times upon my soul. 

She never told her love; — 
But let concealment, like -^worm V the hud. 
Feed on her damask cheek : She pinM in thought; 
And, like patience on a monument, sat smiling 
at grief. 

A Metaphor is the putting of a word to a use 
which, in its original import, it does not admit. 
A Metaphor in borrowed words compares. 
As, for excess, we say — a flood of tears. 

EXAMPLES. 

Spring awakes the flowers; Autumn gath- 
ers the fruit. 

Wallace was a thunderbolt of war; 
Fingal, the gale of spring. 

A Metaphor expresses a comparison without using 
the signs of comparison; and in this alone it differs 
from a Simile. Comparison is the foundation of both. 
Our Washington was the pillar of Columbia's hope — 



64 POLITE LEARNING. 

This is a Metaphor, — Washingtouy like a mighty pillar 
upheld the state. — ^This is a Simile, 

Charles the twelfth was the lion of the north. 

Metaphor, 

Charles the twelfth was like a lion prowling for his 
prey. Simile, 

An Mlegory is a continued metaphor; or it is 
a figurative representation in which something 
is intended, different from what is expressed by 
the words literally taken. 

EXAMPLES. 

Venus (love) grows cold without Cere,? (bread) 
and BachuSj (wine. ) 

An Allegory is a chain of Tropes — 
I've passed the shoals; fair gales now swell my 
hopes. 

The following is a correct and most beautiful Alle- 
gory, representing the people of Israel under the 
image of a vine. 

" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt; thou hast 
cast out the heathen, and planted it: thou preparedst 
room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and 
it filled the land. 

" The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and 
. the boughs thereof weve like the goodly cedars. 

" She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her 
branches unto the river. 

" Return, we beseech thee, and behold and visit this 
vine. "SOth Psalm. 

Irony J dissembling with an air, 
Means otherwise than words declare. 

EXAMPLES. 

Cry aloud; for he is a god: eitJier he is t^lk- 



TROPES OR FIGURES. 65 

ing, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey; or, 
peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked. 

1 KingSy xviii. 27. 

Hyperbole soars high, or creeps too low; 
Exceeds the truth, things wonderful to show. 

EXAMPLES. 

Achilles \YdiS fleeter than the stag — sivift as 
the wind, 

A Climax, or gradation, is a figure in Rheto- 
ric, which gradually increases the representation 
till it reaches its highest point of interest or im- 
portance. 

EXAMPLES. 

A Climax, by gradation, a- or flfg-scends. 

They were my countrymen, my neighbours, 
my friends! 

She was young, beautiful, amiable, accom- 
plished, and pious. 

An Antithesis is a figure which strengthens 
language, argument, or representation, by oppo- 
sition or apposition, 

EXAMPLES. 

If you wish to be rich, study not to increase 
your stores, — but to diminish your desii^es. 

Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full. 

Metonomy is the putting of the cause for the 
ejfect, or the effect for the cause; the container, 
for the contained; or the sign for the thing sig- 
nified. 



66 POLITE LEARNING. 

EXAMPLES. 

We are reading Virgil — i. e. VirgiVs works. 
Gray hairs [old age] should be honoured. 
The kettle [the water in the kettle] boils. 
He addressed the chair. 
The fair [the ladies] are fickle. 

A Synecdoche puts a part for the ivhole^ the 
ichole for a part, 

EXAMPLES. 

Thirty head [cattle'] perished in the waveSj 
[the sea,] 
While o'er the roof [house] loud thunders break. 



GRAMMAR. 

Q. What is Grammar ? 

A. Grammar is the art of rightly expressing 
our thoughts, either in oral or written language. 

Q. Whence is the word Grammar derived ? 

A. The term Grammar is taken from the 
Greek word [gra/nmaj] which signifies a letter. 

Q. How is Grammar divided ? 

A. Grammar is divided into four parts : ety- 
mology, orthography, syntax, and prosody. 

Etymology deduces and explains the origin, 
reason, and derivation of words; in order to 
arrive at their first and primary signification. 

Orthography, or spelling, teaches to write 
words with all the proper and necessary letters. 

Syntax is the constructing or right ordering 



LANGUAGE. 67 

of words in a phrase or sentence; so as to make 
the meaning clear and distinct. 

Prosody treats of the true pronunciation of 
syllablesj in respect to quantity and accent. 

Q. What are meant by quantity and accent ? 

A. Quantity is the length of time taken up 
in pronouncing a syllable; and accent, the pro- 
nouncing of it with a stronger or a weaker tone 
of voice. 

Q. How many kinds of words are there? 

A. Ten; commonly called parts of speech. 

Q. What are their names ? 

A. The article, noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, 
participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and 
interjection. 

Q. Is it necessary to study the Grammar of 
our own language? 

A. Yes: Without a competent grammatical 
knowledge of our own language, we should be 
ignorant of its beauties, and unable to express 
ourselves correctly, or -politely, even on the 
most trifling occasions. 



LANGUAGE. 

Q. What is Language? 

A. Language is a set of words, or an assem- 
blage of expressions, which chance or caprice 
has established among a people, in order to com- 
municate their thoughts one to another. 

Q. Whence the origin of language? 

A. Language is supposed to he. of divine ori- 



eS POLITE LEARNING. 

gin, and supernaturally communicated to the first 

man, 

Q. Whence comes the diversity of Lan- 
guages ? 

A. The diversity of Languages, is generally 
allowed to have taken its rise from the confusion 
of tongues, at the building of the tower of Babel. 

Q. Where may an account of this event be 
seen; and by w^hom is it given? 

A. We have a particular account of the con-^ 
fusion of tongues given in the eleventh chapter 
of Genesis, written by Moses. 

What is the most ancient language, is a point that 
has been much controverted. The majority seem in- 
clined to the Hebrew; deeming it the primitive lan- 
guage, and the source of all the rest: the Syriac has 
the next greatest number of advocates; but many sup- 
port the Greek; others maintain the Teutonic, and 
some, the Chinese. 

Q. What are the principal languages now 
iised in Europe and America ? 

A. The English, French, German, Spanish, 
and Italian, are almost the only languages now 
used in Europe or America? 

The English language, whose root is chiefly Saxon, 
enriched by derivations from the Latin, and by familiar 
phrases from the French, with occasional formations 
from the Greek language, is not excelled by any other, 
for copiousness and strength. 

The French tongue is extremely brisk and lively; 
composed of ancient Gallic v/ords, and, like the En- 
glish, largely indebted to the Latin. 

The German lias a variety of dialects; principally 
of Geitic orisrin. • 



POETRY. 69 

The Italian is almost wholly an alteration of the 
Latin; and the Spanish language also plainly discovers 
itself to be of the same family. • 

Q. Who was the inventor of letters ? 

A. There being no authentic relation of any- 
alphabetical character before the flood, the greater 
number of writers have contented themselves 
with tracing the origin of letters to Moses; who 
is supposed to be the same with the Egyptian 
Thoth or Hermes. 

That orderly arrangement of the letters, called the 
alphabet, is generally ascribed to Cadmus, king of 
Thebes: he first brought letters from Phenicia into 
Greece, about 1045 years before Christ; whence, in the 
following ages, they spread over the rest of Europe. 



POETRY. 

Q. What is Poetry? 

A. Poetry is a species of composition, made 
according to certain harmonious measures, or 
proportions of time and sound. 

Q. What is a Poem? 

A. A Poem is a complete or finished piece of 
Poetry; as Homer's Iliad. 

Q. What is Rhyme? 

A. Rhyme is that kind of Poetry in which 
the terminating sound of one line agrees with 
that of another; as, 

Soon as we draw our infant breath, 
The seeds of sin grow up for death. 



70 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. What is Blank Verse? 

A. Blank Verse, like other Poetry, is mea- 
sured, but d5es not rhyme ; as, 

Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, 
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. 
Silence, how dead! and darkness, how profound! 
Nor eye, nor listening ear, an object finds: 
Creation sleeps. young. 

Q. What is meant by measitre, in Poetry ? 

A. The term measure, in poetry, means tlie 
number of syllables, or of feet, contained in a 
line. 

Q. What measures are most in use? 

A. The measures most in use are those of ten, 
eight, and seven syllables. 

Q. Give an example of each. 

Of ten. 

The bending Hermit here a prayer begun — 
'^ Lord, as in heaven, on earth thy will be done/' 
Then, gladly turning, sought his ancient place; 
And passM a life of piety and peace. 

PARNEI^L. 

Of eight. 

The woodbine wafts, in odours meek, 
To kiss the rose's glowing cheek; 
Pale twilight sheds her vagrant showers, 
T' awake Aurora's infant flow'rs: 
May smiles on ev'ry face I see, 
But, ah! she smiles no more on me! 

MRS. ROBINSON 



POETRY. 71 

Of seven. 
Oh then, e'er the turf or tomb 

Cover us from ev'ry eye; - 
Spirit of instruction, come. 

Make us learn that we must die! 

COWPER. 

There are several other shorter measures in use, but , 
they are not so common. \ 

Q. What is Pastoral Poetry? 

A. Pastoral Poetry is that which describes a 
shepherd's life, or the life of rural nymphs and 
swains. 

Q. What is an Elegy ? 

A. An Elegy is a mournful poem, or funeral 
song. 

Q. What is Lyric Poetry ? 

A. Lyric Poetry is that which is generally 
used in the composition of odes and, songs, de- 
signed to be sung to the lyre or harp. 

Q. What is Pindaric ode ? 

A. Pindaric ode, so called from its inventor, 
Pindar, is a sort of Poetry, which consists of 
loose and free numbers, of unequal measures. 

Q. What is Satire? 

A. Satire is a free, witty, sharp, and jocose, 
poem; severely reproving the vices and follies 
of those in whom they are found. 

Q. What is Comedy ? 

A. Comedy is an agreeable, humorous repre- 
sentation of the customs of common life. 

Q. What is Tragedy? 

A. Tragedy exhibits the actions of virtuous 



72 POLITE LEARNING, 

and illustrious persons; so as to excite sympathy, 
or promote the patriotic, heroic, and social vir- 
tues. 

Tragedy and Comedy are called dramatic 
Poetry. 

Q. What is an Epic or Heroic poem ? 

A. An Epic or Heroic Poem, is a poetical 
narration or rehearsal of the illustrious and im- 
portant actions of the person celebrated in the 
poem; as, the exploits of Achilles, in the Iliad 
of Homer. 

Q. An Epigram — what is that? 

A. An Epigram is an inferior kind of poem, 
whose peculiar character is brevity, beauty, and 
a sharp turn of wit at the close. 

Q. What is an acrostic — a rondeau — a cha- 
rade — echo — rebus, &c.? 

A. They are a trifling kind of productions, 
not here jvorth a description. 

Q. What is a poetical foot — and why so 
called ? 

A. A certain number of syllables connected, 
form what is called a poetical foot. They are 
termed feet, because it is by their aid, that the 
voice, aa it were, steps along through the verse 
in a measured pace: and it is necessary that the 
syllables which mark this regular movement of 
the voice, should, in some way, be distinguished 
from the others. 

Q. How many kinds of these feet are there ? 

A'. All the poetic feet are reducible to eight 
kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three; 
viz. 



POETRY. 7S 

A Ti'ochee - c A Dactyl - o o 

. An Iambus o - An Amphibrach a - o 

A Spondee An Anapaest o o - 

A Pyrrhic o a A Tribrach o o a 

Q. How are these several kinds of feet dis- 
tinguished ? 

A. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, 
and the last unaccented; as, hateful, pettish. 

An lambiis has the first syllable unaccented, 
and the last accented; as, betray, consist 

A Sjwndee has both the words or syllables 
accented; as, the pale moon. 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables 
unaccented; as, 5n the tall tree. 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and 
the last two unaccented ; as, labourer, possible. 

An ^otniphiby^acft has the first and last syllables 
unaccented, and the middle one accented ; as, 
.delightful, domestic. 

An Jinapaest has the first two syllables unac- 
cented, and the last one accented ; as, contravene, 
acquiesce. 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; 
as, numerable, conquerable.^ 

* Some of those feet may be denominated principal ones; 
as pieces of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any 
of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and 
Anapaest. 

These may also be divided, each into several species, ac- 
cording to the number of feet or syllables of which they are 
composed. They are capable also of numerous variations, 
by intermixing them, and by the admission of the secondary 
feet. 

The Spondee, Pyrrhic, Amphibrach, and Tribrach, arc 
secondary feet. 



74 POI^ITE LEARNING. 

Q. What advantage then, is to be derived from 
understanding th^se feet? 

A. An acquaintance with these feet, enables 
those who read Poetry, to judge of its correct- 
ness, to relish its beauties, and to read it, in the 
hearing of others^ with more propriety and ef- 
fect. 

Give an example of Trochaic verse. 

Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought; 
Bliss, a native of the sky, 
Never wanders. Mortals, try; 
There, you cannot seek in vain; 
For, to seek her, is to gain. 

idle, after dinner, In his chair, 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat and fair. 

Give an example or two of Iambic verse. 

And may, at last, my weary age 
Find out a peaceful hermitage. 

How lov'd, h5w valu'd once, avails thee not, 
To whom related, or by whom begot: 
A heap of dust alone remains of thee; 
^Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 

Be wise t6-day; 'tis madness t6 defer; 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead; 
Thus on, till wisdom is push'd out of life. 



POETRY. 75 

Give an example of Dactylic measure. 

From thS l5w pleasQres 5f this fallen natQre, 
Rise we to higher, &c. 

Give an example of Jinapsestic verse. 

y6 woods, spread yOur branches apace, - 
To your deepest recesses I fly; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chase; 

I would vanish from every eye. 

May I govern my passi5ns, with abs5lute sway, 
And grow wiser and better, as life wears away. 

Q. How many kinds of poetical pauses are 
there ? 

A. There are two kinds of poetical pauses — 
one for the sense, and another for the melody; 
perfectly distinct from each other. The former 
is called the sentential pause; ancl the latter, 
the harmonic panse. 

The sentential pauses are those which are 
known to us by the name of stops; as, the com- 
ma, semicolon, colon, &c. 

Q. What have you to remark respecting the 
harmonic pause? 

A. The harmonic pauses may be subdivided 
into the final pause, and the cxsnral pause. 
These sometimes coincide with the sentential 
pauses, and sometimes have an independent 
state; that is, exist where there is no stop in the 
sense. 



76 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. Where, in reading Poetry, is the Jinal, and 
where, the csesural pause, to be made ? 

A. The final pause takes place at the end of 
the line, closes the verse, and marks the mea- 
sure: the caesural pause divides the line into 
equal, or unequal parts, falling generally on the 
fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable, in heroic verse. 

The final pause preserves the melody, without 
interfering with the sense; for, as it has no pe- 
culiar note of its own, but always takes that 
w^hich belongs to the preceding-word, it changes 
with the matter, and varies with the sense; and 
thus, prevents monotony. 

Exemplification of the caesural pauses: ["] 

The silver eeV\ in shining volumes rolVd^ 
The yellow carp'\ in scales bedropp^d with 
gold. 

Round broken columns" ^ clasping ivy twin^dj 
O^er heaps of ruin'\ staWd the stately hind. 

Oh, say, what stranger cause", yet unexplor^d^ 
Could make a gentle belle", reject a lord. 

The line is sometimes divided into four parts, 
by the introduction of what is called a demi-cse- 
sura; thus, 

Warms' in the sun", refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars'", and blossoms' in the 

trees; 
Lives' through all life", extends' through all 

extent, 
Spreads' undivided" ^ operates' y unspent. 



MUSIC. 77 

MUSIC. 

Q. In what does Music consist ? 

A. Music consists in a succession of pleasing 
sounds, with reference to a particular, internal 
sense, implanted in us, by the Great Author of 
Nature. 

Q. What does Music teach, considered as a 
science ? 

A. Music, considered as a science^ teaches us 
the just disposition and true relation 'of sounds; 
so that they may affect us in the most agreeable 
manner: as an«r/, it enables us to express these 
sounds with facility and correctness. 

Q. What is to be understood by the composi- 
tion of Music? 

A. The composition of Music is the art of 
framing pieces of music, and writing them in 
notes, upon paper ; according to the rules of the 
science. 

Q. How many sounds may be expressed by 
the human voice. 

A. The human voice is ordinarily capable of 
expressing twenty-two sounds. 

Q. ^ What is Melody ? 

A. Melody is the agreeable effect which arises 
from the succession of single sounds.. 

Q. What is Harmony ? 

A. Harmony is the pleasing union of several 
sounds. 

Q. What are the principal qualities o^ mu- 
sical sounds ? ^ 

A. The primary and essential qualities of 
G2 



78 POLITE LEARNING. 

musical sounds are, relative acuteness or grau- 
til/ J and proportionate duration. 

Bodies of unequal size^ length, or tension, emit 
sounds differing both in duration and in gravity or 
acuteness. Thus, in a set of regularly tuned bells, the 
largest gives the gravest sound, and the smallest, the 
most acute. 

Human voices also differ in this respect: a man's 
voice being more grave than that of a woman. 

Q. Whence is the word Music derived ? 

A. The term Music, is supposed to have been 
originally formed from the Latin word musay 
muse; the Muses being considered as its inven- 
tors. 

Q. Had not Music a very early origin ? 

A. Music appears to have been among the 
most ancient of the arts; particularly that of 
vocal music, Man, in the early ages, had not 
only the various tones of his own voice on which 
to make his observations, before any other art, 
or any instrument, was found out, but had the 
various natural strains of birds to give him oc- 
casion to improve his own voice, and the modu- 
lations of which it was capable. 

Q. How are the various musical instruments 
supposed to have been invented } 

A. The 'first invention of wind instruments, is 
ascribed to the observation of the wind whist- 
ling in the hollow reeds. 

As for other kinds of instruments, there were 
so many occasions for using cords or strings, that 
men could not fail to observe their variou;? sounds; 
and this may liavc given rise to stringed instru- 



OPTICS. 79 

ments. And in regard to pulsatile instruments, 
such as drums, cymbals, &c. they may have 
arisen from the observation of the sounds of hol- 
low and concave bodies. 

Q. Is not Music in great repute ? 

A. Music has been in the highest esteem in 
all ages, and among all people. Authors, to ex- 
press their high admiration of it, have incul- 
cated, that it was used in heaven, and was one of 
the principal entertainments of the gods, «ind of 
the souls of the blessed. 

Q. What are the effects of Music ? 

A. Music not only delightfully recreates the 
mind, and gives it new vigour for business, but, 
by it, diseases are said to have been cured, sedi- 
tions quelled, passions raised and calmed, and 
even madness occasioned. 



OPTICS. 

Q. What are Optics ? 

A. Optics is that science which explains the 
nature and laws of vision; whether natural, as 
j^rformed by the eye; or, artificial, as efiected 
by instruments. 

Q. How is vision produced ? 

A. Vision, or the act of seeing by the eye, is 
produced through the rays of light which are 
reflected from an object, and received in at the 
pupil; and which, being refracted, in their pas- 
sage through the coats and humours, to the retina, 
and thence conveyed, by the optic nerve, to the 



80 POLITE LEARNING. 

common sensorium in the brain, cause the lumin- 
ous object to be perceived, by the mind. 

Q. What are the other benefits of this science ? 

A. Besides explaining the manner in which 
vision is performed in the eye, it treats of sight, 
in general; explains the several modifications 
which the rays of light undergo in the eye, and (' 
why some can only see a short, and others a 
greater, distance: sliows why objects appear 
someth«es greater, and sometimes smaller; 
sometimes distinct, and sometimes confused ; 
sometimes near, and sometimes remote: and ac- 
counts for the production of light, colours, &c. 
All the rules of perspective have their founda- 
tion in Optics. 



MATHEMATICS. 

Q. What are Mathematics ? 

A. Mathematics is a science that contemplates 
whatever is capable of being numbered or mea- 
sured. 

Q. What is the etymology of the word? 

A. The word Mathematics is derived from 
the Greek ; and the original word signifies di^ 
cipline or scieiice; for, this is the oldest science, 
and the rest took their common name from it. 

Q. How are Mathematics divided ? 

A. Mathematics are divided into pure and 
mixed: i\\e,pure considers quantity, abstractedly, 
and without any relation to matter or bodies; the 
mixed are interwoven with physical considera- 
tions. 



ARITHMETIC. 81 

Q. Of what use is this science ? 

A, The science of Mathematics, opens and 
extends our ideas, strengthens and improves our 
understanding, fixes our attention, and, by giving 
a habit of just reasoning, prepares us for all other 
kinds of study, and every important employment 
of life. 

Q. What are its principal branches ? 

A. The principal branches of Mathematics 
are, Arithmetic, Geometry, Mechanics, Optics, 
Astronomy, Geography, Chronology, and Archi- 
tecture. 



ARITHMETIC. 

Q. What is Arithmetic ? 

A. Arithmetic is the science or knowledge of 
numbers, and has five principal rules for its ope- 
rations; namely; Numeration, Addition, Sub- 
traction, Multiplication, and Division. 

Numeration teaches to read or express the 
jtrue value of any number of figures, written 
down, or named. 

Addition, to collect several numbers or quan- 
tities into one sum; as, 7 and 5 are 12, and 8 
are 20. 

Subtraction takes a less number from a greater, 
and shows the remainder or difierence. 

Multiplication enables us to find the amount 
of any number taken any proposed number of 
times; so that it is a compendious kind of addi- 
tion. 

Division is the reverse of Multiplication, and 



82 POLITE LEARNING. 

shows how often one number is contained in an- 
other. 

Reduction, the Rule of Three, Practice, In- 
terest, Fellowship, the Extraction of Roots, &c. 
are no more than so many combinations of those 
five elementary rules. 

Q. To whom is Arithmetic necessary ? 

A. A knowledge of Arithmetic is necessary 
to every one. It is the soul of commerce, and 
essentially necessary in every department of life. 



GEOMETRY. 

Q. What is Geometry ? 

A. Geometry is a science teaching the men- 
suration of quantity, extension, and magnitude ; 
that is, of lines, surfaces, and solids. 

The word is from the Greek, and signifies to 
measure the earth. It had its rise among the 
Egyptians; who were, in a manner, compelled 
to invent it, to remedy the disorders occasioned 
by the annual inundations of the river Nile, 
which bore away the bounds and landmarks of 
their estates. 

Q. What is a Line ? 

A. A Line is length only, having neither 
breadth nor thickness. It is supposed to be 
formed by the motion of a point; and is to be 
conceived as the limit of a surface, and not as a 
part of that surface, however small. 

Q. What is a Surface ? 

A. A Surface or Superficies, is a magnitude, 



GEOMETRY. S3 

extending in length and breadth, but without 
thickness or depth. It is produced by the mo- 
tion of a line ; and is chiefly considered as the 
external part of a solid. 

Q. What is a Solid ? 

A. A Solid is magnitude, endued with three 
dimensions, or extended in length, breadth, and 
depth. It is terminated, or contained, under 
one or more planes or surfaces, as a surface is 
under one or more lines. 

Q. How is Geometry divided ? 

A. Geometry is divided into four principal 
branches; Altimetry, Longimetry, Planimetry, 
and Stereometry. 

Q. Explain the purport of each ? 

A. JlltiTnetry includes the measuring of lines, 
either in respect to height or depth ; whether ac- 
cessible or inaccessible. 

Longimetry is the art of measuring lengths 
and distances; both, accessible; as roads, &c. 
and inaccessible ; as, arms of the sea, &c. 

Planimetry teaches the mensuration of planes, 
or surfaces; which is performed by square mea- 
sures; as, square inches, square feet, &:c. It in- 
cludes surveyings or fhe art of measuring land; 
by taking the dimensions, laying down the same 
in a map or draught, and finding its contents or 
area. 

Stereometry is the mensuration of all kinds 
of solid bodies, by cubic measures; as, cubic 
inches, cubic feet, &c. This includes gauging^ 
or the art of finding the contents of any vessel^ 
or the quantity of liquid contained therein. 



84 POLITE LEARNING. 

METAPHYSICS. 

Q. What are Metaphysics? 

A. Metaphysics may be considered as the 
science of mind. It contemplates the nature 
and properties of abstract qualities, and of im- 
material or spiritual beings; as, Deity ^ the^ow/, 
angels^ intellect ^ &c. 

Physics treats of material or natural things; and 
judges of them from experience. 

Metaphysics is applied to the contemplation of im- 
material or spiritual things : and judges of them only 
by abstraction, independent of material things. 



ASTRONOMY. 

Q. What is Astronomy ? 4 

A. Astronomy is a mixed, mathematical sci- 
ence; teaching the knowledge of the celestial 
bodies, their magnitudes, motions, distances, pe- 
riods, eclipses, and order. 

Q. What is the use of this science? 

A. By knowledge derived from Astronomy, 
the size of the earth is discovered, the situation 
of countries ascertained, trade and commerce 
carried on to the remotest parts of the world, 
and its various products distributed for the health 
and comfort of the human family. 

By the study and grandeur of this sublime sci- 
ence, our faculties are enlarged and ennobled, 
and we soar above the comparatively little things 
of this nether world; while, at the same time, our 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 85 

understandings are convinced of the existence, 
power, and goodness, of the Supreme Being; 
who carries on tlie wonderful harmony and con- 
nexion observable throughout the solar system. 



OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 

Q. Of Avhat does the Solar System consist? 

A. The Solar System consists of the sun, with 
eleven primary, and eighteen secondary planets, 
or moons, and a number of comets. 

Q. Give some particulars of the Sun. 

A. The Sun, an immense globe of fire, is fixed 
in the centre of the system, having a central mo- 
tion about his own axis, in 25 days 6 hours; as 
is evident by observing the black spots seen on 
his disk or surface. He is 763,000 miles in dia- 
meter; about one million of times larger than the 
earth; and dispenses light and heat to all the 
planets and comets revolving round him. 

Q. What are the Planets ? 

A. The Planets are opaque, spherical bodies; 
having no light of their own, but shining by the 
reflected light which they receive from the Sun. 
That side of them, only, is illuminated, which 
is turned towards him. 

Q. Can you name these Planets ? 

A. The names of the Planets are. Mercury, 
Venus, the Earth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, 
Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. 

Of these, the Earth has one moon; Jupiter, 
four; Saturn, seven; and Herschel, six. The 

H 



86 POLITE LEARNING. 

other seven primaries, appear to have no moons 
or secondaries. 

Q. What motions have these Planets ? 

A. They have each a two-fold motion — one in 
their orbit, called their annual or yearly motion, 
and another around their own axis, termed their 
diurnal or daily motion. 

Q. In what direction do these planets move? 

A. All the pfimaries move round the sun, from 
west to east, and the secondaries roupd their 
primaries, in the same direction, except those of 
Herschel, which move from east to west. 

Q. What particulars have you to mention con- 
cerning each of the Planets ? 

A. Mercury is the nearest Planet to the Sun, 
and goes round him in 87 daj^s 23 hours of our 
time, nearly; which is the length of his year; 
but being seldom seen, on account of his prox- 
imity to the Sun, and no spots appearing on his 
surface, the time of his rotation on his axis, or 
the length of his day, is unknown. His dis- 
tance from the Sun, is computed to be thirty- 
seven millions of miles ; his diameter, 3200; and, 
in his course round the Sun, he moves at the 
rate of 105,000 miles every hour. 

Venus, the second Planet in order from the 
Sun, is computed to be 6S million of miles from 
the Sun. By moving at the rate of 76,000 miles 
every hour in her orbit, she completes her annual 
revolution in 224 days 17 hours. 

Her diameter is 7700 miles, and her diurnal 
rotation is performed in 24 of our days, nearly. 
When ihe appears to the west of the Sun, she 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 87 

rises before him, and is called the Morning-star; 
and when to the east of the Sun, she shines after 
he is set, and is then called the Evening-star. 

Q. Why are Mercury and Venus called in- 
ferior Planets ? 

A. Because their orbits are included within 
the earth^s orbit, as appears from their exhibit- 
ing all the varieties of shape and aspect which 
the moon does, during their revolutions round 
the Sun. 

The Earth is the third Planet in order from 
the Sun ; and at tlie distance of more than 
^^ million of miles from him. She completes 
her annual circuit in 365 days 5 hours 49 min- 
utes; moving at the rate of 58,000 miles every 
hour : which motion, though 120 times swifter 
than that of a cannon-ball, is little more than half 
the velocity of Mercury in his orbit. 

The Earth^s diameter is 7970 miles. By turn- 
ing round her axis, every 24 hours, from west to 
east, she causes an apparent diurnal motion of all 
the heavenly bodies, from east to west. This 
Planet is attended by a satellite, or secondary 
Planet, called the Moon; which respects the 
Earth as the centre of its motion; going round 
the Earth, from change to change, in 29 days, 
12 hours, 44 minutes; and accompanying her 
around the Sun every year. 

The Mooivs diameter is 2180 miles, and her 
distance from the Earth 240,000 miles: she com- 
pletes her orbit in 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 min- 
utes; moving about 2290 miles every hour; and 
turns round on her axis, in exactly the same time 



88 POLITE LEARNING. 

that she goes round the earth; which is the rea- 
son of her always presenting to our view, the 
same face. 

Mars is the next in order, or fourth from the 
Sun; being the first beyond the orbit of the Earth; 
and at the distance of 144 millions of miles from 
the Sun. He moves in his orbit at the rate of 
55,000 miles every hour, and completes his 
revolution in 1 year, 321 days, 17 hours, and 21 
minutes; which is the length of his year. 

The diameter of Mars is 4200 miles; and his 
diurnal rotation is performed in 24 hours 39 min- 
utes. He sometimes appears gibbous, but never 
horned like the Moon ; which shows that his 
orbit circumscribes that of the earth: and hence, 
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, are called 
superior Planets, 

Jupiter J the largest of all the Planets, is fifth 
in the system; and at the distance of 490 millions 
of miles from the Sun. By moving in his orbit 
at the rate of 29,000 miles every hour, he fin- 
ishes his annual revolution in 11 years, 314 days, 
12 hours. His diameter is computed to be 89,000 
miles: and by a prodigiously rapid motion on his 
axis, he performs his diurnal rotation in 9 hours 
S^ minutes. 

The body of Jupiter is surrounded by sev- 
eral parallel faint substances, called belts; and 
he is attended by four satellites, which revolve 
round him and enlighten him by night, as our 
Moon does the Earth. 

Saturn is the sixth in the system; and about 
900 millions of miles from the Sun. Travelling 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 89 

at the rate of 22,000 miles every hour, he per- 
forms his annual circuit in 29 years, 167 days, 5 
hours. His diameter is computed to be 79,000 
miles; and his motion on his axis, is so rapid, 
that his diurnal rotation is performed in 10 hours 
16 minutes. 

Saturn has belts, similar to those of Jupiter, 
and is surrounded also by a thin broad ring, 
as an artificial globe is by a horizon: its diame- 
ter is about 21,000 miles; which is equal to its 
distance from the body of the planet on all sides. 
Saturn has also seven satellites; which go round 
him on the outside of his ring, and nearly in the 
same plane with it. 

Herschel is the most remote of all the Planets, 
from the Sun, and was discovered to belong to 
this system, in 1782, by Dr. Herschel, of Bath. 
Its distance from the Sun is about 1800 million 
of miles; its magnitude is about 90 times greater 
than that of the Earth; and its revolution round 
the Sun is performed in about 83 years. Six 
satellites, as attendant upon Herschel, have been 
discovered. 

Q. Can you form any measure to show the 
proportionate bulks of these planets ? 

A. Supposing a globe of 24 inches diameter, to 
be the size of the Sun, the proportionate diame- 
ter of Mercury would be about one-eighth of an 
inch; of Venus, one-fifth; of the Earth, one- 
fourth; of Mars, one-sixth ; of Jupiter, two and 
a half inches; of Saturn, one inch nine-tenths; 
and of Herschel, one inch one-tenth. 

Q. What might be the distance of the Planets 
112 



90 POLITE LEARNING. 

from the Sun, according to these proportions of 

their bulk ? 

A. Mercury would be about 32 yards from 
the centre of the Sun ; Venus, 60 yards ; the 
Earth, 82; Mars, 126; Jupiter, 430; Saturn, 
788; and Herschel, 1570 yards. In this pro- 
portion, the Moon^s distance from the centre of 
the Earth would be only seven inches and a half. 

Q. Can you assist the imagination in forming 
an idea of the actual distance of the Planets 
from the Sun ? 

A. Suppose, that a body projected from the 
Sun, should continue to fly with the swiftness of 
a cannon ball, which is at the rate of 480 miles 
in an hour ; this body would reach the orbit of 
Mercury, in 8 years 290 days; of Venus, in 16 
years 59 days; of the Earth, in 22 years 211 
days; of Mars, in 34 years S2 days; of Jupiter, 
116 years 166 days; of Saturn, 213 years 329 
days; and of Herschel, in 427 years 290 days. 

Q. What are the Comets belonging to this 
system ? 

A. Comets are opaque, globular bodies, with 
transparent trains or tails; moving in very ellip- 
tical orbits, and in every direction, around the 
Sun. They become visible to us through only 
a small part of their course, as they approach the 
Sun; and remain lost to us through their im- 
mense journeys beyond the orbit of the most 
distant Planet; so that their number and periods 
cannot be easily determined. 

Q. How are their tails accounted for ? 

A. Their tails seem to be produced by some 



SOLAR SYSTEIVL 91 

luminous matter in their atmosphere, which is 
visible only in the parts opposite to the Sun. 

Q. What is an Eclipse ? 

A. An Eclipse is a privation of light in any 
of the heavenly bodies ; caused by some other 
body coming between it and the Sun. There 
are various kinds of eclipses; but those of the 
Sun and Moon are the most remarkable. 

Q. How is an Eclipse caused ? 

A. An Eclipse of the Sun — or more properly 
of the Earth, — is caused by the Moon, as she re- 
volves in her orbit, passing between the Sun and 
the Earth, and thereby intercepting his light. 
This Eclipse begins at the west side of the Sun, 
and can never happen except at the time of the 
new Moon. 

An Eclipse of the Moon is caused by the in- 
terposition of the Earth between the Sun and 
the Moon; this can only happen at the full 
Moon; for the Earth, being then between the 
Sun and the Moon, will sometimes intercept his 
light from the Moon. This Eclipse begins on 
the east side. 

Q. Do the Planets ever eclipse each other? 

A. The primary Planets can never eclipse 
each other, by reason of the bulk of the Sun, 
and the immense distances of these Planets from 
him: but a primary may eclipse its secondary, 
or a secondary, a primary: this is frequently the 
case with Jupiter and his satellites. 



92 POLITE LEARNING. 



OF THE FIXED STARS. 

Q. What are the Fixed Stars ? 

A. The Fixed Stars are supposed to be of the 
same nature with the Sun; and of equal, or of 
greater, magnitude. They shine with their own 
native lustre, and are diminished in appearance 
only by their immense distance from us. These 
stars are said to be fixed, because they have gen- 
erally been observed to retain the same situations 
with respect to each other. 

Q. What is their distance ? 

A. The nearest of the Fixed Stars, is comput- 
ed to be above 32 million of millions of miles 
from us ; which is further than a cannon ball 
would fly in 700,000 years: and it is very proba- 
ble that they are situated as far from each other 
as they are from us ; for, there is no visible al- 
teration in their magnitudes, situations, or dis- 
tances, when viewed from the different parts of 
the Earth's orbit ; consequently, the orbit of the 
Earth, which is 162 millions of miles in diame- 
ter, is only a point in comparison to their dis- 
tance. 

Hence, it is easy to prove, that the Sun, seen 
from so great a distance, would appear no bigger 
than a star; and that the surrounding system of 
Planets and Comets must be invisible from the 
nearest Fixed Star. — ^^From all this, it is highly 
probable, that each star is a sun to a system of 
Planets, which, at various distances, and in dif- 
ferent periods, perform their revolutions round 



GEOGRAPHY. 93 

it ; though invisible to us, by our best telescopes. 

Q, What is the number of the stars ? 

A. The real number of the Stars can never be 
kitown. But as the powers of the telescope are 
increased, a greater number is discovered. The 
British catalogue, which includes a great many 
that cannot be seen without the help of a teles- 
cope, contains only about 3000; and of this num- 
ber, the naked eye cannot, in the clearest night, 
discover more than 1000. 

There is a remarkable track around the heavens, 
called the milky way, from its peculiar whiteness; 
which, in some parts, is single; in others, double; and 
was, formerly, thought to be formed by an infinite 
number of very small stars : but, the telescope shows 
it to be otherwise; and, therefore, its whiteness must 
be owing to some other cause. 

Q. As the Stars are fixed, what is the cause 
of their apparent motion ? * 

A. The apparent ihotions of the Fixed Stars, 
or their risings and settings, are the effects of 
the Earth's rotation on her axis from west to east: 
and our seeing different stars, at different seasons 
of the year, is owing to the revolution of the 
Earth in its orbit around the Sun. 



GEOGRAPHY. 

Q. What is Geography ? 

A. Geography is that science which describes 
the surface of this globe, as divided into land 
and water. 



94 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. Is the study of Geography necessary ? 

A. The science of Geography is not only cu- 
rious and entertaining, but highly useful. It 
opens and enlarges the mind ; gives a true know- 
ledge of the various situations of countries, with 
their rivers, mountains, &c. and is of such im- 
portance in history, that without it, nothing can 
be understood with satisfaction and correctness. 

Q. How is the Earth proved to be globular? 

A. 1. By its casting a round shadow upon the 
moon during an eclipse. 2. By its having been 
circumnavigated. 3. By our seeing further the 
higher we are situated. 4. By our seeing the 
masts of a ship at sea, while the hull is hidden 
from us by the convexity of the water. 

The unevenness of the surface on land, aris- 
ing from hills and vales, can be no material ob- 
jection to its rotundity ; since the highest moun- 
tains bear no mor^ proportion to the whole sur- 
face of the Earth, than the unevenness on the 
rind of an orange does to the roundness of its 
figure. 

Q. What is the Axis of the Earth ? 

A. The Axis of the Earth, is an imaginary 
right line, passing through its centre, and ter- 
minating in the north and south poles. 

Q. What is the Equator^ or Equinoctial 
Line ? 

A. The Equator, or Equinoctial Line, is a 
circle encompassing the globe, in the middle, 
from east to west, and dividing it into northern 
and southern hemispheres. 

Q. When does the Sun cross this line? 



GEOGRAPHY. 95 

A. The Sun crosses the line on the 20th of 
March, and 22d of September; when the days 
and nights are equal, in all parts of the world. 

Q. What are Meridians ? 

A. Meridians are circles which run north and 
south, cross the Equator, and pass through the 
poles. Meridians are used to measure longitudes, 
or the distance of one place, east or west, from 
another place. 

Q. What is the Ecliptic? 

A. The Ecliptic is the Sun's apparent path in 
the heavens. 

Q. What is the Horizon ? 

A. The Horizon is that circle in the heavens 
which limits our vision, and divides the upper 
hemisphere from the lower. It is divided into 
32 equal parts, called points, of which E. W. 
N. and S. are termed cardinal points. 

Q. What are we to understand by the Equi- 
noctial Points, or Equinoxes ? 

A. The Equinoctial Points, or Equinoxes, 
are those two points in which the Ecliptic cuts 
the Equator. 

Q. What are the Solstitial Points, or Sol- 
stices ? 

A. The Solstitial Points, or Solstices, are the 
first points of the signs. Cancer and Capricorn; 
being 23i degrees from the Equator, and 90 
from the Equinoxes. 

The Sun is in the summer Solstice, on the 
21st of June, when the days are longest in the 
northern hemisphere — and in the winter Sol- 



96 POLITE LEARNING. 

slice on the 21st of December; when the days 
are the shortest. 

Q. Is not the Ecliptic divided ? 

A. The Ecliptic is divided into 12 equal parts, 
of 30 degrees each; called the 12 signs of the 
Zodiac. 

Q. What are the names, characters, and order 
of these Signs ? 

A. The Signs are as follow — 

Northern Signs. 

Aries t the Ram; Taurus ?S the Bull; 
Gemini n the Twins; Cancer 25 the Crab-fish; 
Leo SI the Lion .; Virgo r(^ the Virgin. 

Southern Signs. 

Libra :£^ the Balance ; Scorpio ti^, the Scor- 
pion ; Sagittarius f the Archer; Capricornus 
Vy the Mountain-goat ; %^quarius zsa the Water- 
bearer ; Pisces X the Fishes. 

Q. What are the Colures? 

A. The Colures are two Meridians; one pass- 
ing through the Equinoctial, and the other 
through the Solstitial point of the Ecliptic. 

Q. What is the Zenith? 

A. The Zenith is that point in the heaveiis 
directly over our heads. 

Q. What is the Nadir? 

A. The Nadir is that point directly opposite 
the Zenith; and, therefore, under our feet. 

Q. What are the Tropics? 



GEOGRAPHY. 97 

A. The Tropics are two circles, running par- 
allel to the Equator, at the distance of 23^ de- 
grees from it. That on the north is called the 
Tropic of Cancer; and that on the south, the 
Tropic of Capricorn. 

Q. Describe the Arctic and Antarctic, or Polar 
Circles. 

A. The Arctic Circle lies at the distance of 
23i degrees from the north pole, and the An- 
tarctic, as far from the south pole. 

Q. What are Zones? 

A. Zones are five spaces into which the globe 
is supposed to be divided, by the Tropics and 
Polar Circles. 

Q. Describe them. 

A. The Torrid Zone is 47 degrees broad, lies 
between the Tropics, has the Equator passing 
through the middle of it, and is very hot. 

The Temperate Zones lie between the Tro- 
pics and Polar Circles, are 43 degrees broad, and 
moderate, as to heat and cold. 

The Frigid Zones extend from the Polar Cir- 
cles to the Poles — are 23^ degrees broad, and 
excessively cold. 

Q. What are Climates ? 

A. Climates are a sort of division of the 
earth, used by ancient geographers, to denote 
our approaching to, or receding from, the Equa- 
tor. The northern and southern hemispheres 
contain each thirty climates; of which twenty- 
four, extending from the Equator to the Polar 
Circles, are termed hour climates, and the other 
six, month ones. 

I 



9S POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. What is Latitude ? 

A. Latitude is the distance of any place, north 
or south from the Equator. It never can exceed 
90 degrees. 

Q. What Is Longitude ? 

A. Longitude is the distance of any place or 
meridian, east or west, from the first meridian. 
It can never, with propriety, go beyond 180 de- 
grees. 

The first meridian may be placed any where. 
But it is usually fixed at the metropolis of some 
country, as London, Paris, Washington, &c. 

Q. How is the Land divided ? 

A. The Land is divided into four principal 
parts, or quarters; called Europe, Asia, Africa, 
and America: which are subdivided into empires, 
kingdoms, states, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, 
and promontories or capes. These, together, 
contain about 800 million of people. 

A Continent is a large extent of land, com- 
prehending several regions or countries, without 
an entire separation of its parts by water. 

An Island is a smaller portion of land, en- 
tirely surrounded by water. 

A Peninsula is a tract of land encompassed by 
water, except at one narrow part, by which it 
joins the neighbouring Continent. 

An Isthmus is a neck, or narrow part of land, 
which joins a Peninsula to the Continent. 

A Promontory is a high point of land, 
stretching itself into the sea; the extremity of 
which is called a Cape or Promontory. 

Q. How is the Water divided ? 



GEOGRAPHY. 99 

A. The Water is divided into Oceans, Seas, 
Lakes, Gulfs, Straits, and Bays or Creeks. 

An Ocean is a vast collection of water, with- 
out any separation of its parts by land. The 
whole expanse of water encompassing the land, 
forms but one general Ocean; but it is generally 
divided into five parts; called, the Northern, 
Southern, Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans. 
More than two thirds of the whole surface of 
this globe are water. 

A Sea is a smaller collection of water, which 
communicates with the Ocean, and is confined 
by land. 

A Lake is a large collection of water, entirely 
surrounded by land. 

A Gulf^ or Bay, is a part of the Ocean, run- 
ning up into the land ; and surrounded by it, 
except at a narrow passage, by which it commu- 
nicates with the Ocean: if a gulf be very large> 
it is called an inland sea: if very small, it is 
termed a Creek, 

A Strait is a part of the Ocean restrained be- 
tween two shores; and is the passage which joins 
one body of water to another. 

Q. Have not these divisions of land, and water 
some resemblance to each other ? 

A. Yes; a Continent is similar, in extent, to 
an Ocean ; an Island, encompassed by water, re- 
sembles a Lake encompassed by land ; a Penin- 
sula of land, is like a Gulf or Inland Sea; an 
Isthmus, whereby two bodies of land are joined, 
resembles a Strait, which unites two bodies of 



100 POLITE LEARNING. 

water ; and a Promontory or Cape of land, is 
like a Bay or Creek of the sea. 

Q. What is meant by the Old, and what 
by the New World ? 

A. The Old Worlds so called because long 
known, includes Europe, Asia, and Africa, and 
forms one large Continent ; and North and South 
America, which form another Continent, are call- 
ed the New Worldy because discovered so lately 
as the year 1492. 

Q. What is understood by the East^ and what 
by the West Indies ? 

A. The East Indies comprehends Hindoostan, 
and all the Asiatic islands, situated between the 
Indian and Pacific Oceans; and the West Indies, 
the islands in the Atlantic Ocean, between the 
Continents of North and South America. 



OF EUROPE. 

Europe, though the least extensive of the 
four quarters of the globe, is, in many respects, 
the most important; and that which, next to our 
own country, demands our particular attention. 
It is there, that the human mind is supposed to 
have been the most expanded; the arts and sci- 
ences most extensively cultivated, and the great- 
est variety of character, government, religion, 
and manners, exhibited. 

Europe lies between 2Q and 12 deg. N. lat. 
and .Q5 E. and 10 W. long, from London; is 



GEOGRAPHY. 101 

3,000 miles long, and 2,500 broad, containing 
about 1 96 millions of inhabitants. It is bounded 
E. by Asia, W. by the Atlantic, N. by the 
Northern Ocean, and S. by the Mediterranean 
Sea, which divides it from Africa. The Christian 
religion prevails generally through Europe: 
there are, nevertheless, some Jews, and many 
Mahometans; and there is perhaps, no form of 
government which it does not embrace. 

Europe comprehends the following empires, 
kingdoms, and states or republics; viz. — 



12 



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POLITE LEARNING. 



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(^OGRAPHY. 


108 


1st. 


Islands in the Mediterranean, 


Islands. 


Chief Towns. 


Islands. 


Chief Towns. 


Ivica, 


Ivica. 


Candia, 


Candia. 


Majorca, 


Palma. 


Cyprus,"^ 


Nicosia. 


Minorca, 


Citadella. 


Negropont, 


Negropont 


Corsica, 


Bastia. 


Lemnos, 


Lemnos. 


Sardinia, 


Cagliari. 


Scio,^ 


Scio. 


Sicily, 


Palermo. 


Samos. ** 




Malta, 


Valetta. 


Rhodes,* 


Rhodes. 


Corfu, 


Corfu. 


Mytilene. 




Cephalonia, Cephalonia. 


Nixia. 




Zant, 


Zant. 






2d. The Irish Sea^ and British ChanneL 


Jersey, 


St Heiler. 


Anglesea, 


Holyhead. 


Guernsey. 




Man. 




Wight, 


Newport. 






3d. On the North and West of Scotland. 


Orkneys, 


Kirkwall. 


Feroes. 




Hebrides, 


Stornway, 


Iceland, 


Skalholt 


Shetlands, 


Lerwick. 







The Europeans in general are well made, and 
tolerably fair, except in Spain, where they in- 
cline to be swarthy: the Spaniards and Hunga- 
rians wear whiskers, and the Turks, long beards. 

Q. What are the commodities of these couu'- 
tries ? 



'^ These are Asiatic. 



104 POLITE LEAR|PNG 

A. The commodities in the nortlic.n parts o{ 
Europe, are, pitch, tar, rosin, hemp, deals, masts, 
lurs, iron, coal, and tin. In the middle parts, — 
corn, cider, hops, salt, lace, lawn, cam brick, 
woollen, and linen cloths, leather, clocks, 
watches, hardware, toys, paper, hats, gloves, 
and glass. In the south, are — wine, rice, raisins, 
oranges, lemons, cotton, marble, alum, amber, 
velvet, and mohair. 

Q. What are the chief mountains ? 

A. The chief mountains are, the Dofrine hills, 
between Sweden and Norway; the Hyperboraean 
mountains, in Russia; the Cheviot hills, between 
England and Scotland; the Pyrenees, between 
Spain and France; the Alps, in Switzerland, the 
south of France, and north of Italy; and the 
Appennines, which run through Italy from north 
to south. Besides these, there are, Etna or Gi- 
bel, in Sicily ; Vesuvius, near Naples; and Hec- 
la, in Iceland; which are volcanic or burning 
mountains. 

Q. What are the most noted rivers ? 

A. The most considerable rivers, as enu- 
merated, folio 102, are, — the Danube, which runs 
through Germany, Hungary, and Turkey; the 
Rhine, Elbe, and Oder, in Germany; Loire, 
Rhone, and Seine, in France; Duero, and Ta- 
gus, in Portugal ; Guadiana, Guadalquiver, and 
Ebro, in Spain; Tiber, and Po, in Italy; Volga, 
and Don, in Russia; Thames, and Severn, in 
England; Forth, and Tweed, in Scotland; and 
Shannon, and LifTey, in Ireland. 



GEOGRAPHY. 105 

OF ASIA. 

Q. How long and broad is Asia, and how is it 
bounded ? 

A. Asia is about 4700 miles long, and 4300 
broad; and is supposed to contain about 500 mil- 
lion of people. It is bounded, on the east, by 
the Pacific ocean — west, by Europe, the Black, 
and Mediterranean seas — north, by the Frozen 
ocean — and south, by the Indian ocean — and 
south-west by the Red sea. 

Q. What is it that makes the Geography of 
Asia particularly interesting ? 

A. We feel a particular interest in the Geo- 
graphy of Asia, because it was there, according 
to the sacred annals, that the Garden of Eden 
was planted, and our first parents, created; there, 
stood the famous tower of Babel, the magnificent 
temple of Solomon, and the renowned cities of 
Sodom, Gomorrah, Nineveh, Babylon, Troy, 
&c. In this country, our Saviour was born, and 
completed the great work of our redemption: in 
short, this was the theatre of almost every action 
recorded in the holy Scriptures. 

Though Asia contains so vast a population, 
yet the great mass of its inhabitants, are, till this 
day, enveloped in Pagan darkness. 

The principal divisions are as follow, viz. — 



106 



POLITE LEARNING. 












Countries. 

Russian 
Chinese 
Mogul 
Independent 
China 
Tonquin 
Laos 

Cochinchina 
Cambodia 
Siam 
Malacca 
Pegu 
Burmah 
Thibet 
Assam 

Hindoostan Pro. 
Deccan 
Mysore 
Carnatic 
Persia 
Arabia 
" Syria 
Palestine 
Natolia 
Diarbec 
Irak Arabia 
Armenia 
Curdistan 
Georgia 
Circassia 



Chief Towns. 

Tobolsk 
Chynian 

Samarcand 

Pekin 

Cachao 

Lanjan 

Thonaoa 

Cambodia 

Siam 

Malacca 

Pegua, Unimerapoora 

Ava 

Lassa 

Chergong 

Delhi, Calcutta 

Hydrabad 

Seringapatam 

Madras 

Schiras, Ispahan 

Mecca 

Aleppo 

Jerusalem 

Smyrna 

Diarbekar 

Bagdad 

Erzerum 

Scherazor 

Tefflis 



GEOGRAPHY. 



107 



The following are some of the riosi exteiisive 
cities of Asia^ with their population, 

Pekin, 3,000,000 

Nankin, 2,000,000 

Canton, 1,500,000 

King-te-ching,l, 100,000 
Hang-cheou, 1 ,000,000 



Lucknow, 

Patna, 

Aleppo, 

Pattan, 

Bombay, 

Yang-cheou, 

Cabul, 

Damascus, 

Ispahan, 

Ummerapoora, 



300,000^ 
275,000 
250,000 
240,000 
220,000 
200,000 
200,000 
200,000 
200,000 
175,000 



Calcutta, 


650,000 


Benares, 


582,000 


Surat, 


550,000 


Meaco, 


500,000 


Madras, 


350,000 


Lahore, 


170,000 


Cashmere, 


160,000 


Delhi, 


150,000 


Cambay, 


150,000 


Moorshedabad 


, 150,000 


Smyrna, 


150,000 


Dacca, 


150,000 


Erzerum, 


150,000 


Siam, 


120,000 



JeddOy capital of Japan, is commonly considered as 
containing one million of inhabitants; but the Japan- 
ese say it contains ten times that number. 

The Turks, Persians, Moguls, and Chinese, 
are of good shape and complexion. The people 
of India are tawny; but their features are pleas- 
ing. The Tartars, Chinese, and people of In- 
dia, pull their beards up by the root. 

Q. In what does the Trade of these nations 
consist? 

A. The chief articles of Trade in the regions 
of Tartary, are sables, martins, furs, iron, rhu- 
oarb, musk, &c.: in other parts, — silk, cotton, 



105 POLITE LEARNING. , 

carpets, fipestry, and mohair; cinnamon, nut- 
megs, aloes, myrrh, camphire, and manna; cof- 
fee, tea, gold dust, quicksih'er, diamonds, porce- 
lain, and lacker; japan wares, &c. 

Q. What are the islands of Asia? 

A. The Islands of Asia are very numerous 
The principal one in size, is New Holland, sur- 
rounded by the Indian and the Pacific ocean; — the 
others, of the most note, are Borneo, Celebes, 
Sumatra, Java, and Ceylon, in the Indian ocean; 
Niphon, New Guinea, Formosa, Luconia, Min- 
danoa, in the Pacific ocean: and Cyprus, in the 
Levant or eastern part of the Mediterranean sea. 

Q. Are there any remarkable mountains in 
this quarter ? 

A. The most remarkable mountains are, Ara- 
rat, near the Caspian sea, on which the ark rest- 
ed after the flood; Horeb, and Sinai, in Arabia; 
Libanus, in Palestine; Imaus, in Tartary, Cau- 
casus, between the Black and Caspian seas; and 
Taurus, running from east to west; through all 
Asia. 

Q. What are the rivers of Asia ? 

A. The principal rivers of Asia are, the Ti- 
gris and Euphrates, between Arabia and Persia 
Tobal and Oby, in Tartary ; Ganges and Indus, 
in India ; and the Hoang-ho and Tay, in China. 

On the north of China, runs a vast brick wall, 
supposed to be 1500 miles in length, from 20 to 
25 or 30 feet high, and broad enough for six 
horsemen to travel abreast with ease: it was 
built before the commencement of the Christian 
era, and, even at this time, is little decayed. 



GEOGKAPHY. 109 

OF AFRICA. 

Q. Can you give the lengthy bread th, and boun- 
daries of Africa ? 

A. Africa, in its greatest length from north 
to south, is about 4,300 miles; and its utmost 
breadth, 3,500. It is bounded on the E. by the 
Indian ocean, — on the W. by the Atlantic, — on 
the N. by the Mediterranean, — and on the S. 
by the S. Atlantic and the Southern ocean. 

The southern extremity of Africa, is called the 
Cape of Good Hope. Africa is entirely sur- 
rounded by water, except at the Isthmus of 
Suez, about 120 miles over, betv/een the Medi- 
terranean and the Red sea. 

Africa contains 11,044,000 square miles, and 
about 70,000,000 of inhabitants. 

Q. What are the countries of Africa ? 

A. This quarter, except along the coast, is 
imperfectly known; but, according to the best 
accounts and conjectures, it may be divided as 
follows: — 

N. AFRICA. 
Countries. Chief Towns. 

jjy r Morocco, Morocco. 

^ I Algiers, Algiers. 



g^<j Tunis, Tunis, 

j Tripoli, Tripoli 



^ 



tBarca, Derne. 

Fezzan, Mourzouk. 

Egypt, Cairo. 

Tafilet, Tafilet. 
Biled-el-gerid, or 
Land of Dates. 

Iv 



110 



POLITE LEARNING. 



w. 


AFRICA. 


Countries. 


Chief Towns. 


Foulahs. 




Jaloffs. 




Dahomey, 


Abomey. 


Benin, 


Benin. 


Biafra, 


Biafra. 


Loango, 


Loango. 


Congo, 


St. Salvador. 


Angola. 




Benguela, 


Benguela. 


s. 


AFRICA. 


CaflVaria, 


CLatahoo, and 
I Kurrechane, 


Colony of Good 
Hope, 


> Cape Town. 


Hottentots. 




E. 


AFRICA. 


Inhambane, and 


I 


Sabia. 


Sofola, 


Sofola. 


Mocaranga, 


Zimbao. 


Mozambique, 


Mozambique. 


Melinda, 


Melinda. 


Magadaxa. 




Ajan, and Adel. 




Abyssinia, 


Gondar. 


jSFubia, 


Sennaar. 


Dongola. 





GEOGRAPHY. Ill 

CENTRAL AFRICA. 

Countries. Chief Towns. 

Zahara, or the 
Great Desert. • 
Totnbuetoo, Tombuctoo. 

Soudan. 
Darfur, Cobbe. 

In Egypt, Bilidulgerid, Zahara, and Abyssinia, 
the people are of a tawny complexion; but in 
all other parts they are quite black, have flat 
noses, thick lips, and woolly hair. 
'Q. What are the commodities of Africa ? 

A, The commodities in Barbary, Egypt, and 
Nubia, are rice, figs, raisins, oranges, lemons, 
citrons and almonds ; pomegranates, olives, and 
senna; leather, civet, sugar, and indigo: in Ni- 
gritia and Guinea,— ostrich's feathers, gold dust, 
elephants' teeth, and pepper: in tiie south, along 
the coast, — -ambergris, frankincense, musk, mil> 
let, pearls, gold, silver, &c. 

But the persons of the natives make the most 
considerable article in the traffic on the Guinea 
or Western coast; where the Europeans and 
Americans, to the disgrace of humanity, and 
contrary to their own laws, purchase them, like 
so many cattle, carry them to the West Indies, 
or to the American continent, and sell them for 
slaves. 

Q. What are the Islands of this quarter ? 

A. The only considerable Island in size, is 
Madagascar, in the Indian ocean ; the others arc 
all small. The most remarkabl© are St. Helena, 



112 POLITE LEARNING. 

Ascension, St. Jago, St. Vincent, Mayo, Canary, 
Teneriffe, Ferro, and Madeira, in the Atlantic 
ocean. 

Q. Are there any Mountains of note ? 

A. The principal Mountains are, Sierra Leone, 
or Lion Mountains, between Nigritia and Gui 
nea; Atlas, between Barbary and Bilidulgerid, 
the Mountains of the Moon, between Abyssinia 
and Monomotapa; and the Peak of TenerifTe, 
which rises nearly three miles above the level 
of the sea. 

Q. What are its Rivers ? 

A. The Rivers of Africa are neither numerous 
nor large, the Nile excepted: the most noted, are 
the Nile, in Nubia and Egypt; and the Niger, 
running through all Nigritia ; of which, the Gam- 
bia and Senegal are branches. 

Q. Give me some account of the Pyramids 
of Egypt ? 

A. The Pyramids of Egypt, near Cairo, are 
the most stupendous structures that ever were 
raised by the hands of men: the basis of the 
largest covers eleven acres of ground, and its 
perpendicular height is 500 feet; but if measured 
obliquely, 700 feet. Their antiquity is beyond 
the researches of history, and their original use, 
still unknown. 



OF AMERICA. 

Q. Give me some account of America. 
A. The continent of America is composed of 
two great peninsulas, Joined by a neck of land 



GEOGKArilV. 115 

about 60 miles over, called the Isthmus of Da- 
rien or Panama. These, taken together, extend 
from N. to S. about 8,000 miles, and are of very 
unequal breadth. 

Q. When, and by whom, \v:ts America first 
discovered ? 

A. America was discovered in the year 1492, 
by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa: he 
left Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, with 
three small ships, fitted out for him by Isabella, 
queen of Castile; and, after a perilous voyage 
of 33 days, landed on one of the Bahama islands; 
where the astonished natives, simple, naked, tim~ 
orous^ and inoffensive, received and treated him 
and his companions as beings of a superior order, 
and of celestial origin. 

Columbus afterwards visite<l several other 
islands, of tlie same group; and, in directing liis 
course southerly, fell in with Cuba and Hispa- 
niola : which he found, not only inhabited by a 
humane, hospitable people, but abounding in all 
the necessaries and comforts of life, 

Q. Did Columbus ever return again to Spain? 

A. Columbus returned to Spain, and w^as re- 
ceived with unbounded applause, and treated 
with the greatest respect. He visited America 
again sevend times, and extended his discoveries 
greatly tu tlie euiolument ofihe Spanish erowri', 
but the ungrateful Ferdinand, after the deatli of 
his queen, Isahelhi, wlio had been the friend and 
patroness of Columbus, sufiered liim to waste the 
evening of his davs, injured and oppressed. He 
Jv J 



114 POLITE LEARNING. 

died at Valadolid, the capital of Castile^ in the 

59th year of his age, A. D. 1506. 

Q. Whence does America take its name? 

A. America takes its name from Amerigo 
Vespucci, a Florentine; who, among a multitude 
of other adventurers, was drawn from the shores 
of Europe to the new world, in quest of riches. 
He sailed to the southern continent, wrote a his- 
tory of his voyage, and had the address, there- 
by, to give his name to half the globe. 

Q. When, and by whom, was North America 
first, discovered ? 

A. North America was first discovered in the 
year 1497, by Sebastian Cabot, a native of Bristol, 
England; when sailing on a voyage of discovery, 
in the employment of Henry VII. 

Q. Did not the Spaniards early plant colonies 
in some of the. West Indian islands ? 

A. The Spaniards planted colonies in sev- 
eral of the V/est Indian Islands, soon after their 
discovery; and, thence, by cunning, conquest, 
and cruelty, they, after a few years, establish- 
ed themselves in many extensive and fertile re- 
gions, both of North and South America. 

Q. Who were the principal agents in these 
conquests and establishments } 

A, The principal agenjs in the Spanish con- 
quests and establishments in America, were Fer- 
dinando Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, two mon- 
sters of cruelty, by whose instrumentality, vast 
multitudes of innocent natives perished in the 
flames, by the sword, and other means. 

Cortes subdued the iNIcxicans between the 



GEOGRAPHY. 115 

years 1518 and 1522; and Pizarro, about the 
year 1535, conquered Peru, and founded the city 
of Lima. 

Q. Whence is it supposed that America was 
first peopled ? 

A. America is supposed to have been first 
peopled from the north-east part of Asia ; but a 
what time is very uncertain: it must, however, 
have been many hundred years before Colum- 
bus^s discovery ; as, Mexico, Peru, and the West 
Indies, were all, at that time, very populous. 



OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Q. Give me the length, breadth, and bounda- 
ries of North America. 

A. North America is nearly 5,000 miles long, 
and from 1,000 to 3,000 broad; bounded E. by 
the Atlantic; W. by the Pacific; N. by the 
Northern ocean ; and S. by the Gulf of Mexico 
and South America. 

Q. What are its grand divisions ? 

A. The grand divisions of North America, 
are— 

1st. The British Colonies, on the N. 

2d. The United States, in the middle; and 

3cl. Spanish America, on the S. W.; besides 
extensive regions of unexplored country, lying 
to the N. and N. W. of the United States, and 
inhabited by numerous tribes of Indians, of whom 
wc know but little. 



116 rOLlTE LEARNLNG. 



BRITISH COLONIES. 

Colonics. Chief Towns. 

Newfoundland, ^ C Placentia. 

Cape Breton, > Islands. < Sydney. 

St. Johns, 3 f Charlotte Town. 

Nova Scotia, " Halifax. 

New Brunswick, Frederickstown. 

Lower Canada, Quebec. 

Upper Canada, York. 

New Britain, a sterile, cold country, including 
Hudson's Bay and Esquimaux, with New North 
and South Wales. 

Quebec is siUiated on the St. Lawrence river, contains 
about 10,000 inhabitants, is the capital of all British Amer- 
ica, and residence of the Governor General. 

These countries are valuable, chiefly for their fisheries, 
fur, trade, and lumber. 



UNITED STATES. 

Q. What do you know of the history of that 
part of America, now called the United States ? 

A, The United States was originally au ex- 
tensive wilderness, inhabited by numerous tribes 
of warlike Indians ; and though it was known to 
the English as early as 1498, they Avere not able 
to effect any permanent settlement in any part 
of it till about the year 1607; when they suc- 
ceeded in establishing a colony at James-town, 
in Virginia. Other settlements were afterwards 



GEOGRAPHY. 117 

made, by emigrants from Europe, in different 
parts of this territory. 

Q. Did not these infant colonies suffer consid- 
erably by the Indians ? 

A. Yes ; many of the first settlers were en- 
tirely cut off by the Indians, and many perished 
by hunger. 

Q. Can you proceed with this narrative ? 

A. Yes; and I observe, that in process of 
time, Great Britain, either by treaty or conquest, 
became mistress of the whole continent, from 
the frozen regions of the north, to the Gulf of 
Mexico on the south; and the colonies, chiefly 
composed of emigrants from her, grew in 
strength, wealth, and resources, with amazing 
rapidity. 

Q. Did these colonies appear to feel any mea- 
sure of attachment to Great Britain ? 

A. The attachment of the colonies to Great 
Britain was very great: they cheerfully fought 
her battles, submitted to her government, and 
received her laws; which, fo-r a long time, were 
wise and equitable. 

Q. Did any thing occur to interrupt this har- 
mony and good understanding ? 

A. Yes: in the year 1765, the British parlia- 
ment changed their measures towards the Amer- 
ican colonies; and, attempting to raise a revenue 
from them, by oppressive taxes, and spurning 
their remonstrance and petitions for redress, lost 
their affections and their confidence, and roused 
them to resistance and opposition 



118 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. What measures were afterwards adopted 
by the Americans ? 

A. The Americans united for their mutual de- 
fence, chose deputies to represent them in con- 
gress, and to conduct their public affairs. Thesi* 
deputies first met at Philadelphia, in September, 
1774. The breach continued to widen, a war 
ensued, and on the 19th of April, 1775, the first 
battle, between the American and British armies, 
was fought at Lexington, near Boston ; and on 
the 4th of July, in the following year, the Con- 
gress, then sitting at Philadelphia, declared the 
United Colonies, then 13 in number, to be free 
and independent states. 

Q. Of what does the Union now consist t 

A. The Union now consists of 24 regularly 
organized and independent states, together with 
three extensive regions of country called Terri- 
tories, out of which additional states will, no 
doubt, in time, be erected. These 24 states con- 
tain about - - . 796,000 square miles. 

The Territories,. 1,286,000 



Total, 2,082,000 square miles. 

Q. Who was commander in chief of the 
American armies during this war ? 

A. The commander in chief of the American 
armies, was George Washington, a native of Vir- 
ginia. 

Q. How long did this war last ? 

A. The war lasted about eight years; during 
which time, great valour and magnanimity were 



GEOGRAPHY. 119 

displayed, and incredible sufferings endured, by 
the Americans. 

Q. Who ultimately triumphed? and when was 
peace established ? 

A. The Americans at length gained their 
point; and peace was concluded in 1782: when 
Great Britain, after expending nearly 120 mil- 
lions of money, and losing 50,000 men, relin- 
quished all claim to the dominion of these states, 
and yielded, reluctantly^ to their arms what she 
had long haughtily refused to their prayers. 

Q. Did America receive any foreign aid in 
this struggle for liberty ? 

A. Yes ; early in the contest, France acknow- 
ledged the independence of the United States, 
and lent them aid, both in money and men; and, 
afterwards, Holland also gave pecuniary assis- 
tance, and, as well as Spain, was arrayed in arms 
against Great Britain. 

Q. Does the same confederation into which 
the states entered at the commencement of the 
war, still continue? 

A. No: the original confederation was soon 
found to be inadequate to the purposes for which 
it was framed: delegates were appointed from the 
several states, to form a new constitution; which 
was drawn at Philadelphia, in 1 787; and in 1789 
it was organized, and still continues the supreme 
law of the land. 

Q. What form of government was adopted in 
the United States ? 

A. The form of government adopted in the 
United States, was Republican: it is vested in a 



120 POLITE LEAKNIPTG. 

President and two legislative branches, viz. a 
Senate and House of Representatives. All the 
individual state governments are also republican. 

Q. How is the President appointed ? 

A. The President and Vice-President are 
chosen by electors, who are appointed by the 
people for that purpose. They continue in office 
four years, and may be re-elected as often as the 
people think proper. 

Q. By whom are the Senators chosen ? 

A. Senators are chosen by the state Legisla- 
tures: two by each state; with a biennial rotation 
of one-third. Their term of office is six years. 

Q. By whom are the House of Representa- 
tives chosen ? 

A. The House of Representatives are chosen 
by the people at large; one for every 58,000, 
and to serve two years. 

Q. Who was the first President of the United 
States ? 

A. The first President of the United States 
was George Washington: he was twice unani- 
mously elected to that office. Upon his declin- 
ing a third election, he was succeeded by John 
Adams. After serving one term, he gave place 
to Thomas Jefferson; who, having served two 
terms, and declined a third election, was follow- 
ed by James Madison, for eight years; and he, 
by James Monroe, who also served eight years; 
and was succeeded by John Quincy Adams, 
who, after serving four years, was succeeded 
by Andrew Jackson, our present chief magis- 
trate. 

Q. How are the United States bounded ? 

A. The United States and their territories are 



GEOGRAPHY. 121 

bounded E. by the Atlantic and New Bruns- 
wick, — W. by the Pacific, — N. by Canada and 
the Lakes, — and S. by the Gulf of Mexico, and 
New Spain, or Mexico. 

They embrace about 1400 miles of sea coast, 
on the Atlantic, and 500 on the Pacific, and ex- 
tend in Various breadths, from ocean to ocean, a 
distance of more than 3,000 geographical miles, 
and contain nearly 10 J millions of inhabitants. 

Q. What is the military strength of the United 
States? 

A. The military strength of the United States 
lies in a well disciplined militia, of about 
900,000 freemen, with about 10,000 standing 
ti'oops employed on the frontiers, and in the dif- 
ferent fortresses of the Union. Its navy, estab- 
lished only for the protection of commerce, is 
yet in its infancy, and consists of 

7 line of battle ships of 74 guns each. 



7 frigates 


of 44 


do. 


3 do. 


of 36 


do. 


2 do. 


of 24 


do. 


13 sloops of war 


of 18 


do. 


6 schooners 


of 12 


do. 



14 of smaller size, as gallies, gun-boats, &c. 2 
of 74 guns each, are laid up under cover; and 5 
line of battle ships, and 4 frigates, are now build 
ing. 

Q. W hat have you to observe respecting the 
soil and climate of this country ? 

A. The climates vary from warm to vei^y 
cold: the soil has all the grades, from worst to 
best; and produces, or, by cultivation, may be 

1. 



122 POLITE LEARNING. 

brought to produce, almost every species of 
grain, fruit, pulse, roots, and plants, found in the 
different parts of the world. 

Q. What are the principal mountains? 

A. The principal mountains in the United 
States, are the White mountains in New Hamp- 
shire;— the Alleghany mountains, which include 
a great number of ridges, under various names, 
extending from Hudson^s river, in the state of 
New York, in a south-western direction, up- 
wards of 900 miles; in various breadths, from 
60 to 150 miles; — also the Stony and Californian 
mountains in the west. 

Q. Describe the face of the country in the 
United States ? 

A. Between the AUeghanies and the ocean, 
the face of the country is generally level; espe- 
cially to the southward; but, west of the AUe- 
ghanies, it is finely diversified, well watered, and 
fertile. The eastern, or New England states, 
are elevated, rocky, and uneven. 

On, and within, the northern boundary of the 
United States, is a chain of fresh water lakes; 
the largest, perhaps, in the world. Lake Erie 
is 300 miles long, and 40 broad — Ontario and 
Michigan, each, in circumference 600 miles — 
Huron, 1000 miles; and Superior, 1500. Be- 
tween Lake Erie and Ontario, are the great falls 
of Niagara. The river is here 742 yards wide, 
and falls 137, or, as some say, 150 feet, perpen- 
dicularly, over a rock;*afibrdinga scene, at once 
the most awful, romantic, and interesting, that 
can be imagined. 



GEOGRAPHY. 123 

The noise of this astonishing cataract, is heard 
to the distance of 20, 30, or even 40, miles; and 
a constant mist arises from it, in which, when 
the sun shines, may be seen all the colours of 
the rainbow. In the winter, this mist congeals 
on the neighbouring trees, and exhibits the most 
beautiful appearances. 

There is, on the Mississippi, a pleasing cata- 
ract, called St. Anthony's Falls; where. the 
whole river, 250 yards wide, descends, perpen- 
dicularly, more than 50 feet. Another remarka- 
ble cascade, named the Falling Spring, is seen 
on a branch of James's River, in Virginia; where 
the descent is at least 200 feet, perpendicular. 

Q. Have the United States any considerable 
commerce ? 

A. Yes: the merchants of the United States 
trade extensively with almost every part of the 
commercial world. 

Q. What are the principal articles of their trade? 

A. The principal exports from the United 
States, are cotton, tobacco, flour, corn, rice, flax- 
seed, pitch, tar, lumber, potashes, salted fish, and 
oil. The imports consist, chiefly, of cloths, and 
hardwares; tea, coffee, sugar, spirits, and wines. 

Q. What is the capital of the United States? 

A. Washington, a flourishing city in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia, on the Potomack, is the capital 
of the United States. Washington lies in 37 
deg. 53 min. N. lat. is 139 miles S. W. from 
Philadelphia, and 40 from Baltimore, and may 
contain about 15,000 inhabitants. The population 
of the whole district may be estimated at 38,000. 



POLITE LEARNING. 




S o i- « w 







3^ 



^ s S •-' o — <*- — ti •." Jr, a S .. 









rt o i 



sill 









LO 11 "n- C5 c* »o -rr or:; O re o* 



C5 '?< o -1 rj cr. 

^ t^ -^ T-« r-t o i^ 
D O © !>» t>^^t^ 

-rocrt>rtN:cr5"o 

3 CO »-l Ci Ci •-' CJ 



CIO f 



t^l^'^ 

r O ;:; X- 

5 -r X --''^'x'o 



c< -^ b c^i r: rH r-i 





GEOGRAPHY. 125 

MEXICO, IN NORTH AMERICA. 

Q. How is Mexico bounded I 

A. It was formerly a province of Spain^ 
but is now independent, and divided into two 
States, Mexico and Central America. 

They comprehend an extensive country, and 
lie between the territories of the United States, 
and the Gulf of Mexico on ilie E. and the Pa- 
cifiQ on the W. stretching from the Isthmus of 
Darien on the South, to the 41st deg. of N. lat. 

Q. What of the soil and climate I 

A. The climate, in many parts, is insalubri- 
ous in summer, but mild and healthy in winter. 
The soil is, in the highest degree, productive. 



INDEPENDENT STATEa 

Population. Capital. Population. 

Mexico, 8,000,000 I Mexico. 150,000 

Central America, 2,000,000 | Gautimala, 50,000 

Q. What possessions has Russia in North 
America? 

A. Russia claims the north-west section of 
North America, from Portlock harbour, round 
to Cape Prince of Wales, at Bhering's straits. 
This territory is valuable chiefly for its fur 
trade, 

L2 



126 POLITE LEARNING. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

Q. What is South America ? 

A. South America is a vast peninsula, of a 
triangular form, nearly encompassed by the great 
South sea. It is upwards of 4000 miles long, by 
about 3000 broad, and is connected to North 
America by the isthmus of Darien. 

Q. What of the mountains of South America ? 

A. The Andes, extending from north to south, 
the whole length of this continent, are the 
loftiest* and most extensive mnge of mountains 
upon the whole face of the globe, and embosom 
several volcanoes of the most sublime and ter- 
rific description. 

Chimborazo^ the most elevated point of the 
Andes, rises 21,500 feet above the level of the 
sea, which is more than 6000 feet higher than the 
summit of the celebrated Mont Blanc of Savoy. 

Q. What are the principal Rivers of South 
America ? 

A. The principal Rivers of South America, 
are the Amazon, La Plata, Orinoko, Para, and 
St Francis; with many others of less size and 
note. Amazon, 3000 miles long, of great width 
and depth, is the largest river in the world; and, 
the La Plata, upwards of 2000 miles long, and 
near the mouth, 150 broad, is little inferior to it. 

Q. Wliat of the soil and climate of South 
America ? 

A. So extensive a region must iiave a great 

* Except the Himmaleh Mountains^ on the north of Hin- 
dostan, the highest peak of which is said to be 28,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. 



GEOGRAPHY. 127 

variety, both of soil and climate; but, it may be 
observed, in general, that the bountiful Creator 
has here bestowed liberally whatever is neces- 
sary for the comfort and convenience of man. 

South America has long been celebrated for 
its rich mines df gold and silver. The whole 
population may be estimated at about 15 mil- 
lions: some of the natives (the Patagonians) 
are of colossal stature. 

Q. What are tlie principal divisions of South 
America ? 

A. South America is divided into the fol- 



lowing 



u 



Columbia, 

Venezuela, 

Peru, 

Bolivia, 

Chili, 

Buenos Ayres, 

Rep. Uraguay, 

Paraguay, 

Brazil, 



INDEPENDENT STATES. 

Population. 



. 3,000,000 

1,600,000 

1,200,000 

800,000 

. 2,000,000 

4,000,000 



Capital. 


roiftilation. 


Bogota, 


50,000 


Caraccaf?, 


30.000 


Lima, 


60,000 


Chuquisaca, 


:30,ooo 


Santiago, 


40,000 


Buenos Ayres, 


80,000 


Monte Video, 


10,000 


Assumption, 


12,000 


Rio Janeiro, 


150,000 



Oilier Towns. 
Carthagena, Panama, Quito, Truxillo, Cusco, 
Guamanga, Areqaipa, La Plata, Potosi, Valpa- 
raiso, Santiago, Santa Fe, St. Salvador, Per- 
nambuco, Cayenne, Dernarara. 



THE WEST INDIES. 

Q. What is to be understood Jby the West 
Indies ? * 



128 POLITE LEARNING. 

A. Under the general term, West Indies, ar« 
included a multitude of Islands, lying in several 
groups, between the two great continents of 
North and South America. 

They belong to different European powers: 
several of them are of considerable size, and 
great commercial importance. 

Q. What of the climate and seasons ? 

A. As the West India islands all lie within 
the torrid zone, they are oppressed with great 
heat, and have neither frost, snow, nor cold 
weather; the rains making the only distinction 
of seasons. Violent hail-storms, however, some* 
times happen, and earthquakes are not uncommon. 

Q. What are the principal articles of produce 
and exportation ? 

A. The principal articles of produce and ex- 
portation, are sugar, and coffee ; cotton, rum, and 
molasses; ginger, pepper, allspice, cocoa, and 
fruits. 

All the labour of cultivation is performed by 
the negroes, who compose more than seven- 
eighths of the whole population, which is about 
2,400,000. 

The principal islands, with their chief towns, 
are as follow, viz. 

Islands. Town*;. Inhabitants. 

Cuba, Havana, 12,000 S. 

Hayti, or CCape Frangais, 8,000 

St. Domingo, ^ St. Domingo, 25,000 

J . C Spanish Town, 5,000? ^^ 

Jamaica, ^ ^ Kingston, 67,000 5 ^• 

Porto Rico, ♦ Porto Rico, • - S. 



CHRONOLOGY. 129 
Islands. Towns. 

St. Thomas, .:.-•- Da. 

St. John, Da. 

Tortola, - E. 

St. Croix, - - - - - Da. 

St. Eustatia, Eustatia, ^ - Du. 

St. Christophei^, Bassetterre, - - E. 

Antigua, St. Johns, - - E. 

Guadalope, Bassetterre, - - F. 

Dominica, Charlotte Town, - E. 

Martinique, Fort Royal, St. Pierre, F. 

St. Lucia, . • - • F, 

Barbadoes^ Bridge Town, - - E. 

St. Vincent, Kingston, - - E. 

Grenada, Port Royal, - - E. 

Tobago, . - - - - - E. 

Curacoa, -.---- Du. 



CHRONOLOGY. 

Q. What is Chronology ? 

A. Chronology is the science of computing 
time, distinguishing its parts, and ascertaining 
the true period of events. 

Q. What Chronology is most ancient ? 

A. The most ancient Chronology is that given 
by Moses, which fixes the creation of the world 
at 4004 years before the birth of Christ, and 
which, by adding the current year A. D. 1826, 
makes the world to have existed 5830 years. 

The ancient Greeks computed time by Olym- 
piads, or periods of 4 years; the Romans reck- 
oned from the building of Rome, 752 years be- 



130 POLITE LEARNING, 

fore Christ; and the Mahometans, from the He- 
gira, or flight of Mahomet to Mecca, in 622 of the 
Christian era. 

Q. What is Time? 

A. Time is the measme of duration; and is 
either absolute or relative. Msolutt time, or 
simple duration J flows uniformly, from eternity 
to eternity ; and has no regard to external ob- 
jects. Relative^ or apparent time^ is that por- 
tion of duration, which is measured by the uni- 
form motion of some sensible object; as the sun, 
the moon, clocks, watches, &c. 

Thus, two persons, one in London, and the 
other in Philadelphia, observing an eclipse of the 
sun, may see it commence or terminate at the 
same moment of absolute time; while, in re/a- 
tive timey their clocks or watches will show a 
diflerence of five hours. 

Q. What are the divisions of Time ? 

A. Time is divided into centuries, ages?, 
years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and 
seconds. 

Q. What is the difference between an age and 
a century ? 

A. An age^ is, properly, the space of time 
during which a man or generation of men, lives 
upon the earth; a century is 100 years: but age 
is often taken in a more extensive sense, and 
embraces several generations, or even centuries; 
as, from Adam to the deluge, is termed the first 
age of the world, &c. 

Q. What is a Year? 

A. A true solar Year is twelve months, or the 



CHKOxNOLOGY. 131 

space of time in which the earth moves round 
the sun; or in which the sun completes his ap- 
parent revolution in the ecliptic. It consists of 
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 57 seconds. 

Q. Of how many days does a common civil 
year consist? 

A. A common or civil year consists of 365 
days: but, as the odd hours, minutes, and seconds, 
of the solar year, amount, in four years, to nearly 
one whole day, every fourth year takes 366 
days, and is called leap year. 

Q. What is to be understood by old and new 
style? 

A. The civil year, as settled by Julius Caesar, 
contained 365 days and 6 hours; which was 11 
minutes 3 seconds more than the true solar year. 
This excess caused the times of the equinoxes 
and other seasons of the year, to arrive one day 
earlier than they ought, in every 130 years. 
Thus, at the time of the Nicene Council, A. D. 
325, the vernal equinox fell on the 21st of March; 
but, in A. D. 1582, it occurred 10 days earlier; 
hence, it was seen, that great confusion must at- 
tend the celebration of Easter, and other move- 
able feasts, which would at length fall on the 
same days. 

This led Pope Gregory XIII. to think of re- 
forming the style. H^, accordingly, ordered 
the ten days that had been gained, to be stricken 
out of the year; which brought the vernal equi- 
nox again to the 21st of Marcb. And to pre- 
vent a repetition of this inconvenience, Gregory 
further ordered, that only every fourth, termed 



132 POLITE LEARNING. 

leap year, should have 366 days, and the others, 
365. 

This is called the Gregorian, or new style ; 
and agrees so nearly with the true solar time, 
that 6000 years will not make the difference of 
one day. 

Q. When was the new style adopted in Great 
Britain and America? 

A. The new style was not adopted in Great 
Britain and America, till A. D. 1752; when 11 
days, which had heen gained, were taken from 
that year, by act of parliament. 

Q. What is a month ? 

A. The month is periodicalj synodicalj or 
civil. A periodical month is the time in which 
the moon passes round the earth; namely, 27 
days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes. 

The synodical month, called a lunation, is the 
time which elapses from the moon^s parting 
with the sun, at a conjunction, till her return to 
him again ; which is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 
minutes. 

Civil months are the 12 kalendar months, 
into which the year is divided for the use and 
convenience of civil lif^. 

They are of different lengths, and named as 
follow: — 

1. January; from JannSj the most ancient 
king of Italy, who was deified by the people, 
and to whom they kept this month as sacred. 

2. February; from Februo^ to purify or 
cleanse by sacrifice. This was the last month 
of the year, in which purifications and sacrifices 



CHRONOLOGY. 133 

were used among the ancient Romans, for the 
ghosts of the dead. 

3. March: from Mars, the god of war; to 
whom this month was kept sacred. 

4. April; from aptrio, to open or unfold: be- 
cause, in this month, nature begins to unfold all 
her beauties. 

. 5. May; from the heathen goddess, Maia^ 
to whom this month was held sacred. 

G. June; from the heathen goddess, Juno, 

7. July; in honour of Julius Caesar. 

8. August; in honour of Augustus Caesar. 

9. September; from the Latin septem, seven.* 
1.0. October; from the Latin octo^ eight 

IL November; from novem, nine. 
12. December; from decern, ten. 

Thirty days hath September, 

April, June, and November; 

February, twenty-eight alone. 

All the rest have thirty-one. 

But when you come to leap-year time, 

Give to Februmy full twenty-nine. 

Q. What is a Week? 

A. A Week is the succession of seven natural 
days; called Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wed- 
nesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. 

On Sunday, the ancient Saxons worshipped 
the Sun; on Monday, the Moon; on Tuesday, 
their idol, Tuisco; on Wednesday, Woden; on 
Thursday, Thor ; on Friday, the goddess, Freia; 
and on Saturday, the idol, Seater. 

* At this period of time, the vear began with March. 
M 



134 POLITE LEARNING. 

On account of the derivation of these names 
of the months and days from heathen supersti- 
tion and idolatry, the use of them is rejected by 
some religious denominations; who adopt in 
their stead, 1st month, 2d month, 3d month; and 
1st day, 2d day, 3d day, &c. Others reject Sim- 
day^ only; and use Sabbath^ or Lord^s day^ in 
its place. 

Q. What is a Day? 

A. A Day is either natural or artificial. The 
natural Day contains 24 hours; the artificial day 
is the time between the rising and setting of the 
sun. 

Q. Do the difierent nations of the earth all be- 
gin the natural or civil day at the same time ? 

A. No; the Americans, British, French, Dutch, 
Germans, Spaniards, Portuguese, and Egyptians, 
begin at midnight ; the ancient Greeks and Jews, 
commenced at sunset; as do now the modern 
Italians and Chinese; while the Persians, Sy- 
rians, and modern Greeks, count from sunrise; 
and astronomers from noon. 

Q. Do all nations reckon the days in the same 
order '^, 

A. No; the Christians count from the Sab- 
bath, or Lord's day; in memory of the resurrec- 
tion of their Saviour, Jesus Christ; the Jews from 
Saturday, and the Mahometans, from Friday. 

Q. What is an Hour ? 

A. An Hour is the 24th part of a natural day. 
A minute is the 60th of an hour; and a second, 
the 60th of a minute. 

Q, How many weeks are there in a year ? 



CHRONOLOGY. 135 

A. There are 52 weeks in a year, of 7 days 
each. 

Q. What is an epoch, and what an era ? 

A. An epoch is the time at which a new com- 
putation is begun, and from which dates are 
numbered by historians ; as, the creation of the 
world, the building of Rome, the birth of Christ, 
&c. An era is, properly, an account of time 
from one epoch to another; but it is often used 
as synonymous with epoch. 

For example, w^e say, 

Noah's flood happened A. M. (i. e. Anno 
Mundi^ or in the year of the world) 1656. 

Kings w^ere expelled, and consular govern- 
ment established at Rome, A. U. C. (i. e. ab 
tirbe conditay from the building of the city,) 
244. 

America was discovered by Columbus, A. D. 
(i. e. Anno Domini^ in the year of our Lord) 
1492. 

Philadelphia was founded, A. D. 1683. 

Independence was declared, July 4, 1776. 

Q. What is an Olympiad ? 

A. An Olympiad is the space of four years ; 
used by the ancient Greeks, to mark the time 
from the institution of the Olympic games;* 
which they celebrated at the beginning of every 
fifth year, in a plain near the town of Olympias. 

Q. What is a Lustrum ? 

*These games were contests in running, wrestling, 
boxing, chariot races, &c. instituted by Hercules in 
honour of Jupiter, 744 years before Christ. 



136 POLITE LEARNIING. 

A. A Lustrum is a space of five years; used 
only by the Roman poets. 

Q. What is an Indiction? 

A, An Indiction is a revolution of fifteen 
years; used by the Romans, for indicting the 
time of certain payments made by the people to 
the republic. 

Q. What is 2^Juhilee? 

A. A Jubilee is a public festivity. 

Q. What is a Cycle of the sun ? 

A. A Cycle of the sun is a period of twenty- 
eight years, in which time the days of the month 
return to the same days of the week ; the sun's 
place, to the same signs and degrees of the eclip- 
tic; and the commencement of the leap-years, 
to the same days of the week. 

Q. What is a Cycle of the Moon. 

A. A Cycle of the Moon is a revolution of 
nineteen years; in which time, the new moons, 
full moons, conjunctions, oppositions, &c. return 
to the same days of the month. 

Q. Of what use are these Cycles ? 

A. By tlie revolution of the solar Cycle, is 
found the Dominical, or Sunday Letter: the year 
of the lunar Cycle is called the Golden Number; 
and from both, is determined the time of cele- 
brating Easter. 

Q. Have not the poets made another division 
of time ? 

A. Yes : Poets divide time into four ages: 

1. The golden age; attributed to Saturn and 
Rhea; comprehending the earlier periods of the 
world, when men were more virtuous and happy. 



CHRONOLOGY. 137 

2. The silver age; ascribed to the reign of 
Jupiter; extending to the time that tyrants ap- 
peared among the human race, aggrandizing 
themselves by oppression, violence, and injustice. 

3. The brazen age; in which, rapacious men, 
possessed with the lust of dominion, endeavoured 
to reduce their brethren to a state of slavery. 

4. The iro)i age; in which, every species of 
crime began, and which, they say, still continues. 

Q. What are meant by the seasons of the 
year ? 

A. The seasons of the year are those changes 
and varieties which are produced in nature, by 
the revolution of the earth around the sun. 

Q. What are the seasons called ; and how 
long do they continue ? 

A. The seasons are called Spring, Summer, 
Autumn, and Winter; each continuing three 
months. 

Q. When does each of these seasons begin ? 

A. Spring begins on the* 21st of March; 
Summer, on the 21st of June; %6.utum,ny on the 
23d of September; and Winter, on the 21st of 
December. 

Q. What are the Dog-days ? 

A. The Dog-days are the oppressively hot 
days which elapse between the 19th of July and 
the 28th of August. They have their name from 
the great Dog star; which is observed, during 
that time, to rise and set with the sun. 
M 2 



138 POLITE LEARNING. 

MYTHOLOGY. 

Q. What is Mythology ? 

A. Mythology is the history and explication 
of the fabulous gods and heroes of the heathen 
world. 

Q. Whence is the word Mythology derived? 

A. The word Mythology is derived from the 
Greek words viuthos^ a fable, and logos, a de- 
scription. 

Q. Of what use is a knowledge of these fa 
bles ? 

A. A knowledge of Mythology enables us to 
read, with advantage, the ancient classic authors, 
to understand the allusions of the poets, and to 
explain the historic and fabulous representations 
often found in pictures, &c. 

Q. How are the heathen gods divided ? 

A. The heathen gods are divided into six 
classes ; the celestial, terrestrial, marine, infernal, 
subordinate, and ^lemi-gods. 



OF THE CELESTIAL DEITIES. 

Q. Who are tlie Celestial Deities ? 

A. The gods of this class, are, Jupiter, Apol- 
lo, Mercury, Bacchus, and Mars; and the god- 
desses, Juno, Minerva, and Venus. 

Q. Who was Jupiter [^ 

A. Jupiter w^as the sovereign god of the hea- 
thens;"* the son of Saturn and Ops, bol^n in 

* The heathens, in general, believed that tlicro was only 
one supreme God: but, when they considered this one 



M\?THOLOGY. 139 

Crete^ at the same birth with Juno, lie mar- 
ried his sister Juno, expelled his father out of 
liis kingdom, and divided it with his brethren. 
He is represented, in poetic fiction, as havinj;- 
metamorphosed himself into a swan, for Leda — 
into a hull, for Europa — into a shower oj' gold ^ 
for Danae — into a shepherd, i'ov Mnemoysne; 
and, thus, to have filled heaven with his natural 
children. 

Q. How was the sovereign authority divided 
amongst the sons of Saturn ? 

A. Jupiter, as the eldest, had the heavens; 
Neptune, the waters; and Pluto, the hifernal re- 
gions. 

Q. Had Jupiter any children by Juno ? 

A. Jupiter had two §ons, Vulcan and Mars, 
and a daughter named Hebe; whom, for hei* ex- 
traordinary beauty, he made e;oddess of youth. 
She was likewise his cupbearer, and poured out 

great being as inilueiicing the aiFairs of the worlJ, they 
gave him as many different names : and lience proceeded 
their variety of nominal gods. When lie tliundered or 
lightened, they called him J\ipitcr; when he calmed the 
sea, Neptune ; when he guided their conucils, Minerva ; 
and when he gave them strength in battle. Mars. In 
process of time, thev nsed diflerent representations of this 
Jupiter, Neptune, kc. and considered them, vulgarly at 
least, as so many dilierent persons. Afterwards ihey'rc- 
irarded each in dilTerent views ; according as tliey sbowered 
down blessings, or iullicled punLshincnts. 'J'here was also 
one Jupiter f<jrEuru{)e, and anotlier for Africa; and in 
Kurope there was one great Jupiter who ^vas the particular 
friend of the Athenians, and another who v,as the special 
protector of the Koinans. I'liere ivas scarcely a Unvn in 
Italy that had not a Juyjitcr of its own. In this way, Jupiter 
had temples and diflerent characters almost every where. 



140 POLITE LEARNING. 

the nectar, the drink of the gods; which they 
called ambrosia. 

Q. How is Jupiter represented ? 

A. Jupiter is generally painted as sitting with 
the fulmen, or thunder, or rather lightning, in 
one hand, and a sceptre and eagle in the other. 
Sometimes, an eagle is placed at his feet; that 
bird having the title of his armour-bearer; and 
when represented in a chariot, he is drawn by 
four horses. 

Q. Who were the parents of Apollo ? 
' A. Jupiter and Latona were the parents of 
Apollo: he was born in the island of Delos, at 
the same birth with Diana. 

Q. What advanced Apollo among the gods? 

A. Apollo was advaxiced among the gods, by 
the invention of physic, music,* poetry, and rhet- 
oric, which are ascribed to him; and, therefore, 
he is said to preside over the muses. He had 
a famous temple at Delphos; where his oracles 
were in great estimation. 

Q. In w^hat manner is Apollo distinguished ? 

A. Apollo is distinguished by the beauty of 
his face and the gracefulness of his figure; and 
by a laurel crown on his head, a bow and arrows 
in one hand, and a harp in the other. 

Q. Does not Apollo sometimes mean the sun? 

A. Apollo is sometimes used for the sun: he 
is also the god of light; and then, generally 
called Phcehus, 

Q. Who was Mcrcin^y? 

A. Mercury, tlie son of Jupiter and Maia, was 
the god of eloquence and commerce, the patron 



MYTHOLOGY. 141 

of thieves, and the messenger of the gods. He 
conducted souls to their proper phicc, after their 
parting from the hod}\ 

Q. How is he represented ? 

A. Mercury is represented as a youth of ex- 
treme lightness and agility; hut the most re- 
markable of his distinguishing attributes are his 
petasus, or winged cap ; liis talaria, or winged 
shoes ; and his caduceus^ or wand, with wings 
at the top, and hound by tw^o serpents. 

Q. What do you say of Bacchus? 

A. Bacchus was the son of Jupiter and Sem- 
ele, and was the god of wine: he is represented 
as a jolly beardless youth, crowned with ivy and 
vine leaves; a spear wrapped with the same, in 
one hand, and grapes or a cup, in the other. — 
He is usually attended by Silenus, and a band of 
drunken Satyrs, nymphs, &c. and wdien carried 
in a chariot, he is drawn by lions and tigers, or 
by lynxes and panthers. 

Q. Who \vas Mars? 

A. Mars was the sou of Jupiter and Jiuio; or, 
as Ovid tells the story, of Juno alone ; who was 
displeased that Jupiter sliould ha/e a daughter, 
(Minerva,) witliout female aid: being therefore 
a son of discontent, he was made the god of war 
and strife. 

Q. How is he distinguished ? 

A. Mars is painted with a lierce and sour 
aspect ; terror every where in his looks, clothed 
in armour, a helmet on his head, and a spear in 
his hand. When in a chariot, he is drawn by 
two horses ; which are driven by his sister, Bel- 



142 POLITE LEARNING. 

lona^ the goddess of war, who is represented as 

a distracted woman. 

Q. What are the distinguishing characters of 
Juno, the sister and wife of Jupiter ? 

A. Being queen of the gods, and goddess of 
the air, Juno is represented as beautiful in a high 
degree, and full of majesty, having a sceptre in 
her hand, a crown of roses and lilies on her 
head, and her chariot drawn by peacocks. She 
is attended by Iris, her messenger, who, on ac- 
count of her sw^iftness, is represented with wings, 
and as ridins: on a rainbow. 

Q. Whence did Minerva proceed ? 

A. Minerva came forth from the brain of hei 
father, Jupiter, completely armed; and is the 
only one of his offspring to whom pertain the 
prerogatives of the supreme rank of divinity. 
She is the goddess of wisdom and the arts, and 
the inventress and presidei*!: of war. 

Q. How is she represented by the poets and 
painters ? 

A. Minerva or Pallas, is distinguished by the 
dignity of her f^ice, and a sternness, bordering 
on masculine; a helmet, with a plumed crest, on 
her head ; a spear in her right hand, and in the 
other, a shield, with the head of Medusa upon 
k: the same figure appears also on her breast- 
])late: she is generally accompanied by a cock 
and an owl : as emblems of fiditinjy and wisdom. 

Q. Who was Venus? 

A. Venus was the most ])eautiful of all the 
goddesses: she sprung from the froth of the sea, 
was educated by the Hours, and afterwards car- 



MYTHOLOGY. 143 

ried by them into heaven ; where, the gods found 
her so extremely liandsome, that they were de- 
sirous of marrying her, and named her the god- 
dess of love ; but at last she was married to 
Vulcan, the ugliest and most deformed of all 
the gods. 

Q. In what manner is Venus described ? 

A. The poets, painters, and statuaries, repre- 
sent Venus in a variety of alluring forms; with her 
hair waving over her naked shoulders, or negli- 
gently tied behind, in golden tresses: with a 
mantle, exhibiting all the colours of the rainbow, 
and glittering with diamonds; sometimes flow- 
ing loosely, and at other times, bound with a 
girdle, called cestus. 

Venus is accompanied by Cupid and the Gra- 
ces, and followed by the beautiful Adonis; who 
holds up her train. — When riding in her chariot, 
(which is of ivory, carved and^guilt,) she is 
drawn by swans, doves, or swallows. 

Q. How, Is Cupid reprevSented? 

A. Cupid, the god of love, appears as a naked 
boy, with wings, and bearing a quiver, bow, and 
darts; or a torch: though he is the youngest of 
all the gods, yet his power is deemed the 
strongest. 

Q. Who are the Graces? 

A. The Graces are three sisters; named Ag- 
laia, Thalia, and Euphrosyn^: they are repre- 
sented naked, very beautiful, and with their 
hands connected. 



i 



144 POLITE LEAKNING. 

OF THE TERRESTRIAL DEITIES. 

Q. Who are the Terrestrial Deities? 

A. The most eelehrated Terrestrial Deities 
are, Saturn, Vulcan, iEohis, anclMomus; Vesta, 
Cybele, Ceres and the Muses: there are also 
others of note; which reside in the woods, and 
are properly called i!!;ods of the inoods, 

Q. ^Nho \^ Satnni? 

A. Saturn, the father of the gods, was the 
son of Uranus and Vesta, or Ccielum and Terra: 
his brothers were Titan, Oceanus, and many 
others; his sisters were Ceres and Cybele (oth- 
erwise Ops, or Rhea,) wdiom he afterwards mar- 
ried. Being dethroned by his son, Jupiter, he 
took refuge in Italy; where he civilized the 
people, and introduced several parts of agricul- 
ture. 

Q. How is he represented ? 

A. Satiu'u is represented under tlie figure of 
2i decrepit old man, with a long beard, and hoary 
head; bearing in one hand a pruning hook, or 
scythe, and in the other a child, which he is 
abotit to devour. Sometimes, he is furnished 
with wings and an hour-glass : Saturn and time 
being the same, he is thus represented, to denote 
the swiftness of time, and that it destroys all 
things. 

Q. What do you say of Vulcan? 

A. Vulcan was the son of Jupiter and Juno, 
and the husband of Venus ; as mentioned before. 
On account of his deformity, he was cast down 
from heaven, fell on the island Lemnos. and 



IVIYTHOLOGY. 145 

broke his leg: there, he set up the trade of a 
smith, manufactured Jupiter's thunder, and the 
arms of the other gods; and taught the manifold 
uses of fire and iron. Vulcan is represent- 
ed lame and deformed, blackened and hard- 
ened from the forge, and with a face red and 
fiery: sometimes, he is attended by the Cyclops, 
his servants and workmen ; who have only one 
eye, which is placed in the middle of their 
foreheads. 

Q. What is the province of JEolus? 

A. ^olus is god of the. winds: he is painted 
with swoln cheeks, like one who endeavours to 
blow a blast forcibly; also with wings on his 
shoulders, and with a high-coloured, fiery coun- 
tenance. 

Q. Who is MoniiLS? 

A. Momus is the god of folly; his name sig- 
nifies a jester, mocker, or mJmic ; and that is his 
employment ; for, when he finds the gods doing 
amiss, or neglecting their duty, he censures, 
mocks, and derides them, with great freedom. 
He is represented with a mask, and a grotesque 
face. 

Q. Who was Vtsta? 

A. Vesta, or Terra, the wife of Cffilum, and 
mother of Saturn, is the oldest of the goddesses; 
and represented as sitting, and with a drum; be- 
cause the earth is immoveable, and contains the 
boisterous winds in its bosom. 

There was another Vesta, the daughter of 
Saturn, a virgin goddess: she is the same with 
lenis, or fire. 

N 



146 POLITK LEARNJrNG. 

Q. Who is Cybelh; and how is she repre- 
sented ? 

A. Cybele is the wife of Saturn, and mother 
of all the gods; and, being goddess of all things 
which the earth sustains, she is represented as 
seated in a chariot drawn by lions, having gar- 
ments of various colours, and figured with the 
images of divers creatures: she holds a key in 
her hand, and wears a crown of turrets on her 
head. 

Q. What is the office of her sister, Ceres? 

A. Ceres is the goddess of corn and tillage; 
and is represented as tall and majestic, with 
yellow hair; on her head, 3 turban composed of 
ears of corn ; in one hand, poppies and corn ears, 
and in the other, a lighted torch. 

Q. Who are the Muses? 

A. The Muses are nine beautiful virgins, the 
daughters of Jupiter and the nymph Mnemo- 
syne, or Memory: they are mistresses of the 
sciences, and governesses of the festivals of the 
gods. Their habitation was mount Parnassus. 

Q. What are their names, and the sciences 
over which they preside ? 

A. Calliope is the goddess of rhetoric; CliOj 
of history; Eimto^oi poetry; Thalia, of com- 
edy; Melpomenh, of ti'agedy; Terpsichore, oi 
dance ; Euterpl, of music ; Polyhymnia, of 
song; and Urania, of astronomy. 

Q. Please to describe the gods of the woods. 

A. The principal of the gods of the woods, 
and the manner in which they are represented, 
are as follow: 



MYTHOLOGY 147 

1. Pan^ the god of shepherds and luuiters, has a 
smiling ruddy face, a long beard, and two horns 
on his head: his skin is spotted, his thighs and 
legs covered with long hair, and he has the tail 
and feet of a goat; in one hand, he holds a 
crooked staff, and, in the other, a pipe of uneven 
reeds. 

2. The Satyrs and Fauns are attendants oh 
Pan; they are horned, and have the tail and legs 
of a goat. 

3. Sylva7ius, who presides over the woods, is 
an old man, of little stature, with the tail and 
feet of a goat; holding a branch of cypress in 
his hand. 

4. Silenus, so called from a jocular temper, was 
the tutor of Bacchus, and his perpetual compan- 
ion: he is represented as an old man, with a bald 
head, flat nose, large ears, a tail, and cloven feet 

5. Diana^ the goddess of the woods, was twin 
sister to Apollo; and, as he is sometimes called 
Sol, the Sun, she is often called Luna, or the 
Moon. 

Diana^s delight is in hunting: accordingly, she 
is described as running, with a short vest, girded 
about her; yet flying back with the wind. She 
is tall ; her face very handsome, yet somewhat 
manly; her attributes are, a javelin, or a bow, 
quiver and arrows. 

6. Flora^ the goddess of flowers, is represented 
as young and graceful ; holding in her right hand, 
the blossom of beans and peas, and adorned with 
various flowers. 

7. Pomorta^ the goddess of fruit, is an amiable 



148 POLITE LEARNING, 

nymph. Her attributes are, a basket of fruit, a 
number of apples in her left hand, and, in her 
right, a nosegay of flowers. 

8. The Nymphs are young and beautiful virgins 
who attend on superior, celestial, terrestrial, and 
marine deities. Those of the air, are called 
Aurm; of the woods, Dryades; of the moun- 
tains, Oreades; of the sea, Nereides; and of 
the rivers, or fountains. Naiades. 



OF THE MARINE DEITIES. 

Q. How is Neptune^ the god of the sea, de- 
scribed ? 

A. Neptune is commonly represented stand- 
ing, majestic and serene, with a trident in his 
right hand, a dolphin on his left, and treading on 
the back of a ship. When passing over the 
calm surface of the waters, he is in his chariot, 
— a large escallop-shell, drawn by sea-horses or 
dolphins, — and accompanied by his queen with 
numerous attendants. 

Q. Whom did he marry ? 

A. Neptune married^ .y^w^yAZ/W/e, the daugh- 
ter of Nereus and Doris, parents of the Nereides. 

Q. Who are his attendants ? 

A. The attendants of Neptune are, Triton, 
the Sirens, and the Nereides. 

Q. Who was Triton^ and how is he repre- 
sented ? 

A. Triton was the son of Neptune and Am- 
phitrite, and trumpeter to his father. He is re- 
presented as half man and half fish, terminating 



MYTHOLOGY. 149 

in a dolphin's tail, and bearing in one hand a 
wreathed sea shelly which serves him for a 
trumpet, with which to convene the water deities, 
when Neptune wants their assistance or counsel. 

Q. Please to describe the Sii^ens? 

A. The Sirens are supposed to have been the 
three daughters of Achelous and Melphomene, 
and are called ParthenG;je, Lygea, and Leucosia. 
The ancients describe the Syrens with the faces 
of women, and the bodies of birds ; but the mod- 
erns represent them as beautiful virgins, from 
the head to the middle ; and downward, as fish, 
covered with scales. They are said to reside on 
rocks where vessels are in danger of splitting; 
and, alluring passengers by the sweetness of 
their melody, they put them to death. The 
Tritons and Sirens are sometimes called mermen 
and merm^aids. 

Q. How are the Nereides represented? 

A. The Nereides are sea nymphs which com- 
pose the train of Amphitrite, and much resemble 
the modern Sirens, in their figure. 

Q. What of the Naiades? 

A. The Naiades are represented as the Sirens, 
half women and half fish ; residing as so many 
domestics, in the palaces of the water gods: 
where they are said to work, tell stories, and 
wait at table. 



OF THE INFERNAL DEITIES. 

Q. In what manner is Pluto^ god of the infer- 
nal regions^ described by the poets and painters? 

-N2 



150 POLITE LEARNING. 

A. Pluto is represented as extremely black; 
and ugly ; with a key or a sceptre of two points 
in his hand, and a crown of ebony on his head.^ 
When riding in his chariot, he is drawn by 
black horses. 

Q. Who was Proserpine? 

A. Proserpine was the daughter of Juno and 
Ceres; stolen by Pluto out of Sicily, and carried 
to his subterranean dominion: where, she be- 
came the partner of his empire. 

Q. How is Pluto attended ? 

A. Pluto is attended by the Fates, the Furies, 
and the Judges; by Harpies, Gorgons, and 
other monsters; also by Charon, and the dog 
Cerberus. 

Q. What are the Fates ? 

A. The Fates are three sisters; represented 
elderly, and clothed in white, bordered with 
purple: their names are, Clotho, Lachesis, and 
Atropos. To them, is intrusted, the manage- 
ment of the fatal thread of life: Clotho draws 
the thread, Lachesis turns the wheel, and Atro- 
pos cuts the thread when spun. 

Q. Please to describe the Furies? 

A. The principal of the Furies are three 
sisters; called Alecto, Tisiphone^ and Megaera: 
they are represented old and meagre, with pale 
cheeks, inflamed eyes, snakes on their heads, 
instead of hair, and whips or burning torches in 
their hands. Their office is to punish wicked 

* This ugly immortal, finding no woman inclined volun- 
tarily, to share his throne, had recourse to stratagem ; and 
violently carried away Proserpine, daug-htcr of Ceres, 
whilst amusing herself in gathering* ilowers. 



CHRONOLOGY. 151 

men for their crimes, and to torment the con- 
sciences of secret oflfenders. 

Q. Who are the Judges? 

A. The Judges are Minos, Rhadamanthus, 
and afiacus; sons of Jupiter. Minos holds a 
golden sceptre, and oversees the judgment of the 
other two; each of whom holds a staff in his 
hand. When the souls of the dead have passed 
their tribunal, they are conveyed either to Ely^ 
sium or Tartarus: the former, a place abounding 
in pleasures and delights, for the good; and the 
latter, a hideous dungeon, for the wicked. 

Q. Who are the Harpies? 

A. The Harpies are rapacious monsters ; with 
the faces of women, the ears of bears, and the 
bodies of vultures. They were three sisters; 
Aello, Ocypete, and Celeno. 

Q. Describe the Gorgons? 

A. The Gorgons also were three sisters ; de- 
scribed with wings on their shoulders, ser- 
pents around their heads, and their teeth of a 
prodigious size. Their names were Stheno, Eu- 
ryale, and Medusa; the latter of whom was 
chief, and being mortal, was killed by Perseus. 
^ They could change into stone those upon whom 
they looked. 

Q. Who was Charon? 

A. Charon was a decrepit old man, with a 
long beard, yet of youthful vigour, but dirty in 
person and attire: his employment was to ferry 
souls over the rivers at the entrance of hell. 

Q. What were those rivers ? 

A. The rivers at the entrance of hell were 



152 POLITE LEARNING, 

four: Acheron^ whose waters were extremely 
bitter; Styx^ by which the gods were wont to 
swear ; Cocytus^ flowing out of Styx, with a hor- 
rible groaning noise ; and the Phlegethon, swell- 
ing with waves of fire. — Besides these rivers at 
the entrance, there was another in Elysium, na- 
med Lethlj from the forgetfulness it caused ; for, 
those .who drank of its waters immediately for- 
got all past transactions. 

Q. Is there any ihiiig remarkable of the dog 
Cerberus ? 

A. The dog Cerberus had three heads, and 
his body was covered with snakes, instead of 
hair : he was stationed at the gates of Pluto's 
palace; and is sometimes called \h^ porter of hell. 

Q. What other deities are there in the infernal 
regions ? 

A. The other deities in the infernal regions, 
are, old Erehiis and his wife Nox^ who preside 
over darkness and night; Mors, who presides 
over death; and Somnus, over sleep: the last, 
by his servant, Morpheus, sends dreams to peo- 
ple in this world, while sleeping. Phitus, the 
god of riches, is generally deemed an infernal 
deity ; as riches come out of the earth, and are 
the root of all evil. 



OF THE SUBORDINATE DEITIES. 

Q. Who are deemed subordinate deities ? 

A. The subordinate deities are those gods and 
goddesses who preside over kingdoms, provinces, 
cities, towns, streets, houses, &c. and over in- 



MYTHOLOGY. 153 

fants, children, young people, and adult persons. 
Their number is all hut infinite; there being al- 
most as many gods as there are things. 



OF THE DEMI-GODS. 

Q. What do you say of the Demi-Gods ? 

A. The Demi-Gods and Heroes, were those 
who had human bodies, sacred minds, and ce- 
lestial souls. They were the offspring of a god 
or goddess, with a mortal. The principal of 
these were, Hercules, Jason, Theseus, Castor 
and Pollux, Perseus, uiEsculapius, Prometheus, 
Atlas, Orpheus, Achilles, Ulysses, Orion, Osiris. 

Q. Who was Hercules ? 

A Hercules was the son of Jupiter by Alc- 
mena. He was destined by the malignity of 
Juno, and the fatality of his birth, to dangerous 
wars and difficult adventures, through the whole 
course of his life. 

Q. What are his principal exploits ? 

A. The principal exploits of Hercnles are 
termed his twelve labours, and are the following: 

1. Whilst a child in his cradle, he strangled 
two serpents, which Juno had sent to destroy 
him. 

2. He slew, in the forest of Lerna, a frightful 
Hydra, with 50 heads; one of which being cut 
off, another immediately sprung up in its place. 

3. He caught and killed, on mount Menalus, 
an extremely swift hind, with golden horns, 

4. He overcame Diomedes, king of Thrace, 
who fed his horses with the flesh of his guests. 



154 POLITE LEARiNING. 

5. He took, on mount Erimanthus, in Arca- 
dia, a wild boar, that haid spread destruction 
around the country ; and dragged it, alive, to 
Euristheus. 

6. He tamed a mad bull, which had desolated 
Crete. 

7. He conquered, upon the banks of Tarseus, 
a giant with three bodies,, and of immense stature. 

8. He separated two mountains, Calpe and 
Abila, which were before united; and between 
which, are the present straits of Gibraltar. 

9. He carried away the golden apples from 
the gardens of the Hesperides, after killing the 
dragon that watched them. 

10. He suffocated the giant Antaeus, in a con- 
test at wrestling. 

11. To ease Atlas, he took the heavens upon 
his shoulders. 

12. He conquered, in the woods of Nemaea, 
a lion of immense size, and clothed himself with 
the skin. 

Q. What ultimately became of Hercules ? 

A. Hercules having slain the Centaur, Nes- 
sus, (a huge being, half man and half horse,) the 
dying monster gave to Dejanira, Hercules' wife, 
a garment dipped in his own blood, as a preser- 
vative for love. This, she sent to Hercules; 
who had no sooner put it on, than he was seized 
with violent and incurable pains. He raised a 
funeral pile on mount Oeta, set fire to it with 
his own hands, and closed his life in the most 
dreadful agonies. 

Q. Who was Jason, and what is his story ? 



MYTHOLOGY. 155 

A. Jason was the son of JEsSon and Alcimede. 
At the persuasion of his tutor, Pelias, he under- 
took the Argonautic expedition to Colchis, for 
the golden fleece, which he carried awaj'. 

This fleece was the hide of a golden coloured 
ram ; which was guarded in the grove of Mars, 
by huge bulls, breathing fire from their nostrils, 
and by a vast watchful dragon. 

Q. Who was Theseus ? 

A, Theseus was the son of jEgeus, king of 
Athens, and killed the Minotaur, a monster with 
a bull's head, and a man's body, legs, &c. 

Q. Who were Castor and Pollux ? 

A. Castor and Pollux were the sons of Jupiter, 
by J^eda. They shared im^niortality by turns. 

Q. What of Perseus ? 

A. Perseus was the son of Jupiter and Danae. 
He had tlie wings of Mercury, the shield of Mi- 
nerva, the helmet of Pluto, and a sword forged 
by Vulcan ; and, thus armed, he cut off* the head 
of Medusa, chief of the Gorgons. 

Q. Who was ^sculapius ? 

A. -iEsculapius was the god of Physic. 

Q. Who was Prometheus ? 

A. Prometheus was the son of Japetus. He 
animated a man whom he had formed of clay, 
with fire, which, by the assistance of Minerva, he 
stole from heaven ; and for which he was chained, 
by Jupiter, to mount Caucasus, with a vulture 
continually preying on his liver. 

Q. Who was Achilles ? 

A. Achilles was the son of Thetis, goddess 
of the sea. His mother dipped him in the Styx, 



156 POLITE LEARNING, 

and thereby rendered him invulnerable, all but 
the heel, by which she held him. He was slain 
by Paris, who shot him in the heel, at the siege 
of Troy. 

Q. Who was this Paris ? 

A. Paris was the son of Priam, king of Troy, 
by Hecuba. Juno, Venus, and Minerva being 
present at the wedding of Thetis and Peleus, the 
goddess Discord, threw into the assembly, a 
golden apple, with this inscription: ^^To the 
fairest^' Each of the three claimed the apple; 
but, at length, referred the decision to Paris, 
then feeding his flocks upon mount Ida. He 
gave judgment in favour of Venus. Paris is 
memorable also for having carried off Helena, 
wife of Menelaus, king of Mycenae; which 
event occasioned the famous siege of Troy. 

Q. What is said of Atlas ? 

A. Atlas, the son of Uranus, was a great ob- 
server of the stars, and the first who represented 
the world by a sphere. 

Q. What is recorded of Ulysses ? 

A. It is said of Ulysses, that, on his return 
from the Trojan war to the island of Ithica, of 
which he was king, the Syrens endeavoured to 
stop him ; but, that he might not be allured by 
their melody, he closed his ears and caused him- 
self to be tied to the mast. 

Q. What is the story of his wife Penelope? 

A. Besieged by a numerous train of lovers in 
her husband's absence, Penelope delivered herself 
by artifice. Having, to satisfy them, promised 
to make choice of one of them, as soon as a 



HISTORY. 157 

piece of tapestry, on which she was at work, 
should be finished, she took care to unweave, at 
^^ight, all that she had done the preceding day. 

Q. Who was Orpheus ? 

A. Orpheus was the son of Jupiter and Cal- 
liope. He had great skill in music, and took an 
unconquerable dislike to female society, after the 
death of his wife Eurydic^. 

Q. What of Orion? — and Osiris? 

A. Orion was a mighty hunter, and a cele- 
brated giant of antiquity: Osiris, called also 
Apis, and Serapis,* was the first who taught the 
Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines. After 
his death, they worshipped him in the form of 
an ox, as a symbol of husbandry. 

Besides the gods and goddesses belonging to 
the several classes already mentioned, many of 
aie virtues and vices had their peculiar deities. 

HISTORY. 

Q. What is History ? 

A. History is a written narrative of past 
transactions, in regular succession. 

Q. Is not an acquaintance with History, then, 
very desirable ? 

A. A familiar acquaintance with History is a 
most valuable attainment, and well worthy the at- 
tention of all who wish to have their minds en- 
riched from the treasures of experience. As ne- 
cessity has proved herself the mother of inven- 
tion; so, experience will always be acknow- 
ledged the parent of wisdom. 



1 5S POLITE LEARNING . 

History, therefore, being an account of what 
has occurred in real life, and causing all the 
transactions which it relates to pass, in review, 
before the mind of the reader, gives him, in a 
sort, the experience of them ; and yields him 
the wisdom of age, even in the morning of life. 

Q. How is History divided ? 

A. History is divided into ancient and modern: 
which may be subdivided into civil, sacred, and 
profane. 

Q. What is Ancient History.'^ 

A. Ancient History is an account of all events, 
whether recorded by sacred or profane writers, 
from the creation of the world to the birth of 
Christ; or, more generally, to the time of Char- 
lemagne, in the eighth century. 

Q. What is Modern History? 

A. Modern History is a relation of whatever 
has occurred either in church or state, from the 
latter period to the present time. 

Q. What is to be understood by Civil History ? 

A. Civil History is the history of nations, 
and has relation to the establishment, civil po- 
licy, continuance, fall, &c. of empires, kingdoms, 
states, communities, or cities; and may be either 
general or particular. Particular History recites 
a series of facts, forming the history of an indi- 
vidual state; General History exhibits, at one 
view, a distinct account of several states, em- 
pires, &c. 

Q. What is Sacred History? 

A. Sacred History is that part, both of ancient 
and modern History, which lays before us the 



HISTORY. 159 

mysteries and ceremonies of religion^ with the 
visions, prophecies, miracles, and other super- 
natural things recorded in the Old and New 
Testaments,and of which GOD alone is the author. 

Q. Do we not sometimes hear of Ecclesias- 
tical or Church History? 

A. Yes; Sacred History, since the destruction 
of Jerusalem, or about the 70th year after the 
birth of Christ, is, very properly, so termed; as 
it is a narration of transactions, revolutions, and 
events, which particularly relate to the Christian 
church. 

Q. What is Profane History ? 

A. Profane History is, properly, the history 
of the fabulous gods, demi-gods, and heroes of 
antiquity, usually termed mythology; but all 
records of ancient times, the scriptures excepted, 
are, sometimes, thus denominated. 

Q. How may Civil History, or the history of 
nations, be divided, with regard to time? 

A. Civil History, or the history of nations, 
may be divided^ with regard to time, into three 
great intervals. 

1. OhsciirCy or uncertain time ; extending 
from the creation of the world to the deluge. 
This period embraces 1656 years, and is called 
obscure^ because history has left us in great ig- 
norance with respect to it. 

2. Fabulous J or heroical time; extending 
from the deluge to the establishment of the 
Olympic games. It is called ya6w/ow.y, or heroi- 
cal^ because it is perplexed with the fables of 



160 POLITE LEARNING. 

the gods, demi-gods, and heroes of the Greeks; 

who are said to have lived during this period. 

3. Historical time^ extending from the es- 
tablishment of the Olympic games, when history 
began to be more authentic, down to the present 
period. 

Q. How may Sacred History be divided ? 

A. Sacred History may be divided into three 
parts: — 

1. The dispensation of the law of nature; 
extending from Adam to Moses. 

2. The dispensation of the written lata; 
extending from Moses to the preaching of the 
gospel by our Lord Jesus Christ and his apostles. 

3. The dispensation of grace; extending 
from the establishment of the gospel to the pre- 
sent time. 

Q. What is the most ancient History we have? 

A. The most ancient History is that which is 
contained in the Old Testament; giving an ac- 
count of the creation of the world, the fall of 
our first parents, the general corruptions of man- 
kind, and the universal deluge which came upon 
the earth, in consequence; the preservation of 
Noah with his family in the ark, and the re- 
peopling of the worki by his three sons, Shem, 
Ham, and Japheth; and of their posterity. 

Q. What else is recorded in the Scriptures ? 

A. The Scriptures record the history of the 
Jews or Hebrews, once the favourite people of 
Heaven, in the Old Testament; and the history 
of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and 
his disciples, in the New. 



HISTORY. 161 

Q. Does not Ancient History recognize the 
existence of certain extensive monarchies or 
empires ? 

A. Ancient History recognizes four extensive 
monarchies or empires; termed universal; be- 
cause they extended over the greatest part of 
the then known world. 

Q. What was the first of these ? 

A. The first of these was the Assyrian em- 
pire; founded at Babylon, on the Euphrates, by 
Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, A. M. 1800; 
and contmued by his son Ninus, and after Ni- 
nas, by his wife Semiramis, and terminated un- 
der Sardanapalus, having endured 1450 years. 

Q. What became of the empire after the 
death of Sai'danapalus ? 

A. After the death of Sardanapalus, the As- 
syrian empire was divided into three kingdoms; 
the kingdom of Media, the kingdom of Assyria, 
and the kingdom of Babylon. Arbaces, who 
subdued Sardanapalus, was the first king of the 
Median kingdom, and Ecbatana was his capital. 
Phul was the first king of the Assyrian kingdom, 
and his metropolis was Nineveh. Babylon was 
the metropolis of the Babylonian kingdom. 
Nebuchadnezzar was the most celebrated of its 
kings, and Belshazzar the last. 

Q. What was the second universal monarchy? 
and by w^hom founded ? 

A. The second universal monarchy was the 

Persian: founded by Cyrus, upon the ruins of 

the Median and Babylonian kingdoms, in the 

year of the world 346S; and ended with the 

2 



162 POLITE LEARNING, 

overthrow of Darius, its last king, by Alexander 
the Great, A. M. 3670, and before Christ 330: 
having endured something more than 200 years. 

Q. Who was this Cyrus ? 

A. Cyrus was a prince of extraordinary virtue, 
wisdom, and courage; and is renowned in Holy 
Writ, for having effected the restoration of the 
Israelites from the Babylonish captivity, to Ju- 
dea, their native land, with permission also to 
rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. 

Q. What was the third universal monarchy, 
and by whom founded ? 

A. The third universal monarchy was the 
Grecian; founded 330 years before Christ, by 
Alexander the Great. It lasted, however, no 
longer than the life of its founder; for, at his 
death, as there was no proper successor, his gen- 
erals divided the empire among themselves, 
forming four distinct kingdoms; the Macedonian, 
the Asiatic, the Syrian, and the Egyptian. These 
subsisted under their own kings, until they were" 
subdued by the Romans. 

Q. Why was Alexander called the Great? 

A. Alexander w^as called the Great, not on 
account of his virtues, but on account of his 
natural valour, and the great success of his arms; 
which, in the short period of 12 years, subjugated 
all the nations, from the Adriatic sea, (now the 
gulf of Venice) to the river Ganges in India. 

Q. What was the character of Alexander ? 

A. Alexander was of an active, vigorous con- 
stitution, possessing strong intelleclual powers, 
an aspiring, impetuous disposition, and was very 



HISTORY. 163 

tenacious of his opinions. Under the tuition of 
the celebrated Aristotle, he made astonishing 
progress in every branch of science, to which it 
was thought proper to direct his attention ; so 
that he soon became both a scholar and a phi- 
losopher. 

Alexander, in the early parts of life, gave 
strong evidence of a noble, virtuous, and gener- 
ous disposition; but, cruelty, ingratitude, and 
dissipation, disgraced the close of his days, and 
tarnished all his glory. He died at Babylon, of 
excessive drinking, in the 32d year of his age, 
and the 13th of his reign. 

Q. What was the fourth universal monarchy? 

A. The fourth universal monarchy was the 
Roman; founded by Romulus, B. C. 753, and, 
with some changes, continued, until under Au- 
gustus Caesar, it became mistress of the whole 
earth, excepting China, and some other countries, 
that were either unknown, inhabited by savage 
nations, or too inconsiderable to attract regard. 

Q. What changes did the Roman government 
undergo ? 

A. The first state of Rome was regal^ under 
s:jven successive kings: the second was consular y 
under a series of consuls, for the space of 470 
years; when the triumvirate was formed, by Ju- 
lius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who divided 
the empire amongst them. Crassus having lost 
his life in a foreign expedition, Caesar and Pom- 
pey became jealous of each other's power, and 
a war ensued, in which Caesar ultimately tri- 
umphed. He styled himself perpetual dictator; 



164 POLITE LEARNING, 

and was about to take upon him the imperial dig- 
nity, when he was assassinated for his usurpa- 
tion, by a band of Roman citizens, with Bru- 
tus and Cassius at their head. 

Q. Did the republic recover its liberty after 
the death of Caesar? 

A. No: Mark Antony, a factious, dissolute 
character, with young Octavius, the nephew of 
Julius Caesar, and Lepidus, who commanded an 
army in Gaul, formed a second triumvirate; and 
having the soldiery at command, they cruelly 
banished, or put to death, all who were either 
wealthy or virtuous, at Rome: Octavius assumed 
the name of Augustus Caesar, and the liberties 
of the people perished, 231 years before Christ. 
. Q. Was this triumvirate of long standing? 

A. No ; Antony, by divorcing Octavia, the 
sister of Caesar, and attaching himself to Cleo- 
patra, queen of Egypt, drew himself into a war, 
in which he and Cleopatra both perished ; and 
Egypt, from that time, became a Roman pro- 
vince. Augustus, now finding himself supreme 
governor of the Roman people, assumed the im- 
perial dignity; and, under the title of emperor 
Augustus, governed with great wisdom and mod • 
eration for 44 years. 

It was in the reign of this prince, when all 
the world was at peace, that our Saviour, Jesus 
Christ, the true Prince of Peace, was born, at 
Bethlehem of Judea. Rome was at this time 50 
miles in circumference, and contained four mil* 
lions of inhabitants. 



HISTORY. 165 

Q. How long did this empire continue, after 
the birth of Christ ? 

A. The Roman empire continued four hun- 
dred and seventy-six years after the birth of 
Christ, when Augustulus, the last emperor, was 
defeated by Odoacer, general of the Heruli. 

From that time, the Roman empire became 
a prey to the Goths, Lombards, and Franks; by 
whom, were established various petty govern- 
ments, in France, Spain, and Italy: some remains 
of which still exist. 

Q. What effects followed the inroads of these 
barbarians ? 

A., The inroads of these barbarians, caused a 
temporary destruction of the fine arts, and so 
great an obscuration of the sun of scie^nce and 
literature, as occasioned the long succeeding pe- 
riod of nearly 1000 years, to be called the dark 

Printing was at length invented, learning re- 
vived, and greater progress was made in civili- 
zation than at any other period of history. 

Q. When, and by whom, was the foundation 
of the present French empire laid ? 

A. The foundation of the present French em- 
pire was founded about the year A. D. 481, by 
the Francs, a German nation, under Clovis 
w^hose posterity sat upon the throne 270 years. 
The second race began under Pepin, A. D. 751, 
and was followed by the Capetlan race, so called 
from Hugh Caj)(it^ a powerful nobleman who as- 
cended the throne, A. D. 987. This family was 
succeeded by the house of Valois: and the house 



166 POLITE LEARNIiSG. 

of Valois, by that of Bourbon. The execution 
of Louis XVI. in 1793, seemed to have ended 
this dynasty: France was, thence, governed as 
a republic, until 1804; when general Napoleon 
Buonaparte, a native of Corsica, was made em- 
peror. But Napoleon was finally dethroned in 
1815; at which period, Louis the XVIIL, a 
brother of the unfortunate Bourbon, was, a sec- 
ond time, placed upon the throne, by the allied 
enemies of Buonaparte. 

Q. What races of kings have succeeded to the 
Spanish crown ? 

A. Spain has been governed since the expul- 
sion of the Romans, by five families; the first 
race from the Goths; the second, from Don 
Pelago; the third, from Don SanchOj king of 
Navarre; the fourth, from the house of Austria; 
and the fifth, from the house of Bourbon, 

Q. Of what family, is the emperor of Germany? 

A. The emperor of Germany is a descendant 
of Rodolph I., count of Hapsburg, and Land- 
grave of Alsace ; wiio was the first of his family 
that obtained the empire. He was elected A. D. 
1273. 

Q. Of w^hat family, is the emperor of Turkey? 

A. The emperor of Turkey is of the Ottoman 
family; so called, from the warlike Sultan 0th- 
man, or Osman, who A. D. 1300, carried his 
conquests to a prodigious extent. 

Q. At what period, and by what means, did 
Portugal become a kingdom ? 

A. Portugal, anciently called Lusitania, be- 
came a kingdom about the middle of the twelfth 



HISTOKY. 167 

century. Count Henry? receiving some territo- 
ries bordering upon it;, from Alonzo, king of 
Leon, as a marriage dowry with his daughter, 
expelled the Saracens ; and his son, Alonzo, 
having conquered Lisbon, assumed the title of 
king of Portugal, A. D. 1146. Philip II. of 
Spain, seized upon it in 1589; but, in 1640, the 
duke of Braganza "recovered it; and, in his 
family it has ever since remained independent 
of Spain. 

Q. What was the former situation of Holland, 
or the United Provinces, now comprised in the 
kingdom of the Netherlands ? 

A. Holland, or the United Provinces, were 
originally an assemblage of lordships, dependent 
on Spain; but from which they withdrew, on 
account of the tyi^anny of the government, in 
the reign of Philip 11. 

Spain, after a tedious war, acknowledged their 
independence, in the year 1609. They afterwards 
established a republican form of government, 
and made the executive power hereditary in the 
family of the prince of Orange, with the title of 
Stadtholder. 

The French expelled this prince in 1795, erect- 
ed it into a monarchy, under Lewis Buonaparte, 
1806, and incorporated it with their empire, 
1810. After the defeat of Napoleon, at Leipsic, 
in 1813, the Stadtholder resumed the govern- 
ment, and now reigns there, as king of the Neth- 
erlands. 

Q. What are the present divisions of Italy? 

A. Italy is now divided into Austrian Italy, the 



168 POLITE LEARNING. 

kingdom of Sardinia, the Dutchies of Parma, 
Modena, Lucca, and Tuscany; the Pope's Terri- 
tories, and the Two Sicilies. 

Q. Give me a short account of England ? 

A. Before the Romans landed in England, the 
Britons, who then possessed the country, were 
divided into several nations; each governed by 
its own king. When Britain became a member 
of the Roman empire, many of their tribes had 
their own kings, who were suffered to govern, as 
tributary sovereigns, by their own laws. 

After the Romans had quitted Britain; upon 
the irruption of the Goths into Italy, in the fifth 
century, the supreme government returned to 
the Britons; who chose for their king, Constan- 
tine, a prince of British blood ; to whom, suc- 
ceeded Constantuie, his son; then Vortigern, 
who first called in the Saxons, at that time 
hovering along the coast of Britain. 

The Saxons, having got footing in the island, 
either enslaved or extirpated those whom they 
came to assist. 

Thus, the Britons left the stage, and the Sax- 
ons entered. By these, the country was divided 
into seven kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptar- 
chy; which continued for several ages, till the 
prevailing fortune of the West Saxons united 
them all into one, by the name of England. 

Q. How many kings of the Saxon line suc- 
ceeded to the crown of England ? 

A. Fifteen kings of the Saxon line succeeded 
to the English crown, namely — 

Egbert, 17th king of the West Saxons, and 



HISTORY. 169 

19th monarch of Britain, was crowned at Win- 
chester, in the year 819, first king of England; 
he died in 836 ; and was succeeded by his son: 

Ethelwolf, died 857, and was succeeded by 
his son, — 

Ethelbald, died 860, and was succeeded by 
his brother, — 

Ethelbert, died 866^ and was succeeded by 
his brother, — 

Ethelred I. who received a wound in battle, 
of which he died in 872, and was succeeded by 
his brother, — 

Alfred, died 901, and was succeeded by his 
son, — 

Edward, the elder, died 924, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, — 

Athelstan, died 940, and was succeeded by 
his brother, — 

Edmund I. who received a wound, when en- 
deavouring to part two of his servants; of which, 
he bled to death, 948, and was succeeded by his 
brother, — 

Edred, died 955, and was succeeded by his 
nephew, — 

Edwy, eldest son of Edmund I. died of grief, 
in 959, and was succeeded by his brother, — 

Edgar, died 975, and was succeeded by his 
eldest son,- — 

Edward, the martyr, who being stabbed by 
order of his mother-in-law, 979, was succeeded 
by his half-brother, — 

Ethelred II. died 1016, and was succeeded 
by his son,— 

P 



170 POLITE LEARNING. 

Edmund II. murdered 1017, and was succeed- 
ed by a Dane. 

Q. How many kings of the Danish line suc- 
ceeded ? 

A. Three kings of the Danish line succeeded, 
namely — 

Canute, the Dane, descended from the daugh- 
ter of Edward the elder, died 1036, and was | 
succeeded by his son, — 

Harold I. died 1039, and was succeeded by 
his brother, — 

Hardicanute, who died 1041, and was suc- 
ceeded by 

Edward, the Confessor, son of Ethelred 11. 
(of the Saxon line) who died Jan. 1066, and was 
succeeded by 

Harold II. son of the earl of Kent, slain in 
battle October 14, 1066; and was succeeded by 
William the Conqueror. 

Q. .Name the succession of English monarchs, 
from William the Conqueror, down to the pre- 
sent time. 

A. The succession of English monarchs, from 
William the Conqueror, down to the present 
time, are the following: 

1st. Four Norman kings ; William of Nor- 
mandy; William Rnfus; Henry I. and Ste- 
phen. 

2d. Fourteen kings of the family of Planta- 
genet — 

Henry 11. Richard I. John; Henry III. Ed- 
ward I. Edward II. Edtvard III. Richard II. 



HISTORY. 171 

Henry IV. Henry V. Henry VI. Edward IV. 
Edioard V. Richard III. 

3d. Five of the house of Tudor — 

Henry VII. Henry VIII. Edward VI. 
Mary^ and Elizabeth, 

4th. Six, of the house of Stuart — 

James I. Charles I. Charles II. James 11. 
Mary 11. , queen of William III.; Anne, 

5th. One king of the house of Nassau — ^z7- 
/z«m III. 

6. Four kings of the Brunswick line — which 
succeeded upon the death of Anne — George I., 
George II. , George III., George IV. 

Q. Please to repeat these a little more in de- 
tail ? 

A. William I., duke of Normandy, was a 
descendant from Canute; he made a claim to the 
crown of England, and landed in Sussex, in Sep- 
tember, 1066 ; defeated the English troops at 
Hastings, October, following, when Harold was 
slain, and William assumed the title of Conqueror. 
He was crowned at Westminster, in December, 
1066; wounded, by his son Robert, in Norman- 
dy, 1077: his queen, Matilda, was a descendant 
from Alfred, and died in Normandy. William 
died at Hermentrude, in Normandy, September, 
1087; was buried at Caen, and succeeded, in 
Normandy, by his eldest son, Robert; and in 
England, by his second surviving son, 

William II., who was crowned September 
27, 1087 — invaded Normandy with success — 
was killed by accident as he was hunting in New 
Forest, by Sir Walter Tyrrel, August 2d, 1100. 



172 POLITE LEARNING. 

He was buried at Wincliester, and succeeded by 

his brother, 

Henry L, who was crowned August, 1100; 
married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm, king of 
Scots, November, following — defeated his brother i 
Robert, in Normandy, 1 107, and sent him prison- 
er to England — his eldest son was shipwrecked 
and lost in coming from Normandy, 1120^ — sur- 
feited himself with eating lampreys at Lyons, 
in Normandy, and died in December, 1135 — 
was buried at Reading, and succeeded by his 
nephew, Stephen, though, by w^ill, he left his do- 
minions to his daughter Matilda. 

Stephen, was crowned in December, 1135; 
taken prisoner at Lincoln, by the earl of Glouces- 
ter, in 1141, but was afterwards released for the 
earl of Gloucester, who was taken at Winches- 
ter. Stephen died at Dover, October, 1154; w^as 
buried at Feversham, and succeeded by — 

Henry H., grandson of Henry I.; who, with 
his queen Eleanor, .was crowned December, 
1154; invaded L'eland, and conquered it, 1172: 
imprisoned his queen, on account of Rosamond, 
his concubine, 1173; did penance at Becket's 
tomb, 1174; took the king of Scotland prisoner,,! 
1175; and had an amour with Alice of France, the 
intended princess of his son Richard, 1181. He 
died of grief, in Normandy, and was buried ati 
Fonteveraud, in France, and was succeeded by 
his son, 

Richard L, who was crowned September, 
1189; conquered the island of Cyprus, and 
there married Berengera, daughter of the king 



HISTORY. 173 

of Navarre; was arrested, near Vienna, by the 
duke of Austria, December, 1192; ransomed for 
40,000/. and returned to England, March, 1193 
— wounded with an arrow at Chains, in Norman- 
dy, died, and was buried at Fonteveraud, and 
succeeded by his brother, John. 
4 John was crowned in May, 1199 — divorced 
his wife, A visa, and married Isabelle, daughter 
of the count of Angoselme — took his nephew, 
Arthur, prisoner, whom he murdered — impris- 
oned his queen, and banished all the clergy — 
w^as himself excommunicated, 1209 — surrender- 
ed his crown to Pandolf, the Pope's legate, in 
May, 1213 — absolved, in July following — oblig- 
ed, by the barons, to confirm Magna Charta, in 
1215 — died, 1216 — was buried at Worcester, 
and succeeded by his son, 

Henry III. was crowned in Gloucester, Oc- 
tober, 1216 — and at Westminster, 1219 — marri- 
ed Eleanor, daughter of the count of Provence, 
1236 — pledged his crown, plate, and jewels, for 
money, 124S — obliged, by his nobles, to resign 
the power of a sovereign, and sell Normandy 
and Anjou to the French, 1258 — taken prisoner 
at Lewes, in May, 1264 — wounded at the battle 
of Evesham, August, 1265 — died, 1272 — and 
was interred at Westminster, and succeeded by 
his son, 

Edward I. — married Eleanor, princess of 
Castile — was wounded in the Holy Land, by a 
poisoned dagger, but recovered by his princess 
sucking out the venom, 1271 — proclaimed king, 
on the death of his father, in 1272— -landed in En- 

P2 



174 POLITE LEARNIjSG. I 

gland in July, and crowned in August, 1274 — * 
reduced the Welch princes, 1282 — conquered 
Scotland, 1296; and brought to Westminster, 
their coronation chair, &c.-— married Margaret, 
sister to the king of France, 1299 — died in 1307 
— was buried at Westminster, and succeedecLby 
his son, 

Edward II.— was created Prince of Wales, 
1300, and was the first king of England^s son 
thatliad that title— Qiiirried Isabel, daughter of 
the king of France, January, 1308— crowned 
February, following— obliged by the barons to 
invest the government of the kingdom in 21 
persons, March, 1310~declared his queen and 
all her adherents enemies to the kingdom, 1325 
— was dethroned, January, 1327, and succeeded 
by his son, Edward III, —was murdered at 
Berkley-castle, September following, and buried 
at Gloucester. 

Edward III. — married Philippa, daughter of 
the earl of Hainault — accepted the crown on his 
father's forced resignation, and was crowned 
January, 1327 — claimed the crown of France — 
confined his mother Isabella, and caused her fa- 
vourite, Moitimer, to be hanged — defeated the 
Scots at Hallidown, July, 1333 — invaded France, 
and assumed the insignia, 1339 — defeated the 
French, at Cressy, August, 1346, and his queen 
took the king of Scotland prisoner the same 
year — took Calais after a year's siege, August, 
1347 — instituted the order of the Garter, 1349 — 
he died at Richmond, June^ 1377 — was buried 



HISTORY. 175 

at Westminster, and succeeded by his grandson, 
Richard II. son of 

[Edwardy the black prince, who was created 
duke of Cornw^all, 1337, (the first in England 
that bore the title of duke) was created prince 
of Wales, 1344 — defeated the French at Poic- 
tiers, September, 1356, and brought their king 
prisoner to London, in May, 1 357 — married Jo- 
anna, countess dowager of Holland— died of a 
consumption, 1376, and was buried at Canter- 
bury. ] 

[John of Gaunt) fourth son of Edward III., 
— married Blanch, daughter of the duke of Lan- 
caster, 1359, by whom he became possessed of 
that dukedom and title— she died 1369, and in 
1372, he married the daughter of the king of 
Castile and Leon, and took that title — married 
Catharine Swinford, 1396, by whom he had four 
children in the lifetime of his former duchess, 
who were afterwards made legitimate by act of 
parliament; Ifrom the eldest' descended Henry 
VII.;) he died 1399, and w^as buried in St. 
PauFs, London.] 

Richard IL — was crowned July, 1377 — mar- 
ried Ann, sister to the emperor of Germany, 1 382 j 
w^ho died 1395 — married Isabella, daughter of 
the king of France, 1396— caused his uncle 
Thomas, duke of Gloucester, to he smotliered, 
1397 — was taken prisoner by his cousin Henry, 
duke of Lancaster, and sent to the tower, in Sep- 
tember, 1399 — resigned his crow^n, September 
following, w^as succeeded by Henry IV. ; and 
murdered in Pontefract castle, January, 1400: 



176 POLITE LEARNING. 

He was buried at Langley, but removed by 
Henry V. to Westminster. 

Henry IV., duke of Lancaster, grandson of 
Edward HL born 1367 — married Mary, daugh- 
ter of the earl of Hertford, who died 1394 — 
fought with the duke of Norfolk, 1397, and was 
banished — returned to England, in arms, against 
Richard II. and deposed him, September, 1399 
— crowned October following, when he institut- 
ed the order of the Bath — married Joan of Na- 
varre, widow of the duke of Bretagne, 1403-— 
died of an apoplexy, in March, 1413 — was buri- 
ed at Canterbury, and succeeded by his son, 

Henry V. who defeated the Welch in two bat- 
tles, 1405 — was crowned in April, 1413 — claim- 
ed the crown of France, 1414 — gained the vic- 
tory of Agincourt, October, 1415 — pledged his 
regalia for money to push his conquests, 1416 — 
declared regent, and married Catharine of France, 
1420 — died at Rouen, August, 1422 — was buried 
at Westminster, and succeeded by^his only son, 

Henry VI. who was proclaimed king of 
France, 1422 — and crowned at Westminster, 
November, 1429 — crowned at Paris, Deceniber, 
1430 — married Margaret, daughter of the duke 
of Anjou, 1445 — ordered Humphrey, duke of 
Gloucester, his uncle, to be strangled, 1447 — 
was taken prisoner at Northampton, July, 1460 
— deposed, March, 1461, by his fourth cousin, 
Edward IV. — restored to his throne, 1470 — 
taken prisoner again, April, 1471 — his queen 
and son taken prisoners, at Tewkesbury, by Ed- 
vv;ircl, in May, of the same year, and his sou 



HISTORY. 177 

killed in cold blood — he was murdered in the 
Tower, June, following, and buried at Chertsey 
abbey, but removed to Windsor. 

Edward IV. descended from the third son of 
Edward III. was elected king, in March, and 
crowned in June, 1461 — sent the earl of War- 
wick to demand the sister of the queen of France, 
and in the meantime married Eh'zabeth, the 
widow of sir John Gray, 1461— was taken pri- 
soner by the earl of Warwick, in Yorkshire, 
and expelled the kingdom, 1470— returned, and 
gained a great victory at Barnet, April, 1471 — 
caused the duke of Clarence, his brother, w^ho 
had joined the earl of Warwick, to be drowned 
in a butt of Malmsey wine, 1478— he died of 
an ague, April, 1483 — was buried at Windsor^ 
and succeeded by his son, 

Edward V. w^ho was conveyed to the Tower, 
May, 1483— deposed June following, and, with 
the duke of York, his brother, supposed to be 
murdered in the Tower, soon after — he was suc- 
ceeded by his uncle, 

Richard III. duke of Gloucester, brother to 
Edward IV. who was made protector of England, 
in May, elected king, in June, and crowned in 
July, 1483 — slain in battle, at Bosworth field, 
August, 1485 — was buried at Leicester, and suc- 
ceeded by 

Henry VII, (see John of Gaunt) — defeated 
Richard III. and was crowned October, 1485 — 
married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, 14SG 
— his eldest son, Arthur, died 1502 — his queen 
died 1503 — married his daughter Margaret to 



178 POLITE LEARNING. 

James IV of Scotland, 1504 — from whom, 
James I. of England descended — died of a con- 
sumption, at Richmond, in April, 1509 — was 
buried at Westminster, and succeeded by his son, 

Henry VIII. who married Catharine, infanta 
of Spain, widow of his brother Arthur, 1509 — 
and was crowned in June following — received the 
title of the Defender of the Faith, 1521 — styled 
head of the Church, 1531 — married Ann Bo- 
ley ne privately, November, 1532 — divorced 
Catharine, May, 1533 — excommunicated by 
pope Paul, August, 1535 — Catharine, his first 
queen, died January, 1536 — beheaded Ann, his 
second queen, in May, and married Jane Sey- 
mour, who died in childbed, October, 1537 — 
suppressed the religious foundations in England 
and Wales, 1539 — married Ann of Cleves, in 
January, divorced her, in July, and married 
Catharine Howard, August, 1540 — beheaded her 
and lady Rochford, February, 1542 — married 
Catharine Par, his sixth wife, July, 1543 — died 
of a fever, January, 1547 — was buried at Wind- 
sor, and succeeded by his son, 

Edward VI. who was crowned February, 
1547 — fell sick of the small-pox and measles, 
1552 — died of a consumption at Greenwich, Ju- 
ly, 1553 — was buried at Westminster, and suc- 
ceeded, agreeably to his will, by his cousin, 

[Jane Gray, who was proclaimed July, 1535 
— deposed and sent to the tower, July following 
— beheaded, with lord Dudley her husband, Feb- 
ruary, 1554, by the order of,] 

Mary, daughter of Henry VIII,— 1516— 



PT^ 



HISTORY. 179 

proclaimed in July, and crowned in October, 
1553 — married Philip of Spain, 1554 — died of 
a dropsy, November, 1558 — was buried at West- 
minster, and succeeded by her half sister, 

Elizabeth, who was crowned January, 1559 
— imprisoned Mary queen of Scots, who had fled 
to England for protection, 1568 — solicited in 
marriage by the duke of Anjou, 1571 — till he 
was finally rejected, 1581 — beheaded Mary of 
vScots, February, 1587 — defeated the Spanish ar- 
mada, 1588 — beheaded the earl of Essex, her fa- 
vourite, February, 1601 — died at Richmond, 
March, 1603 — was buried at Westminster, and 
succeeded by 

James I. (see Henry VIL) — crowned James 
VI. of Scotland, 1567 — married Ann, princess 
of Denmark, 1589 — proclaimed king of En- 
gland, in March, and crowned in July, 1603 — first 
styled king of Great Britain, 1604 — married his 
daughter, Elizabeth, to Frederick prince palatine 
of the Rhine, 1612 — from whom George I. de- 
scended; lost his queen, March, 1619 — died of 
an ague, at Theobalds, March, 1625 — -was buried 
at Westminster, and succeeded by his son, 

Charles I. who married Henrietta of France, 
May, 1625 — was crowned February, 1626 — 
went to the house of Commons and demanded 
five members, January, 1642 — raised his stand- 
ard at Nottingham, August following; gave him- 
self into the hands of the Scots at Newark, May, 
1636 — sold by the Scots for 200,000/. August 
following; escaped from Hampton-court, July, 
1648 — confined in Windsor castle, December, 



180 POLITE LEARNING, 

following; removed to St. James', January. 
1649 — was brought to trial the next clay, con- 
demned the 27th, beheaded at Whitehall the 
30th, and buried at Windsor, 

Oliver Cromwell w^s made protector, Decem- 
ber, 1653 — elected king, but refused the title, 
May, 1657 — died at Whitehall, September, 1658. 

Richa/rd Cromwell was proclaimed protector, 
September, 1658 — deposed April, 1659 — died 
at Chesnut in Hertfordshire, July, 1712. 

Charles II. son of Charles I. — escaped into 
Holland, 1648 — landed in Scotland, 1650 — 
crowned at Scone, January, 1651- — restored to 
his throne. May, 1660 — crowned in London, 
April, 1661 — married Catharine infanta of Por- 
tugal, May, 1662 — died of an apoplexy, Febru- 
ary, 1685 — was buried at Westminster, and suc- 
ceeded by his brother, 

James II. who married Ann Hyde, 1660 — 
who died 1671 — married the princess of Modena, 
1673 — crowned April, 1685 — fled from his pa- 
lace, and left England, in December, 1688 — 
landed at Kinsale, in Ireland, March, 1689 — 
returned to France, July, 1690— died at St. Ger- 
main's, August, 1701. 

\James^ duke of Monmouth, natural son of 
Charles II. landed in England, and was pro- 
claimed king at Taunton, June, 1685 — was de- 
feated near Bridgewater, and beheaded on Tower- 
hill, in July, following. 

Mary II. (daughter of James II.) was mar- 
ried to 

William III. prince of Orange, who landed in 



HISTORY. 181 

England with an army, November, 1688 — pro- 
claimed king, and his princess queen, of En- 
gland, in February, and crowned in April, 1689 — 
landed at Carrickfergus, June, and defet^ed 
James II. at the Boyne, July, 1690 — lost his 
queen, December, 1694 — fell from his horse, 
and broke his collar-bone, February 1702 — died 
at Kensington, March following; was buried at 
Westminster, and succeeded by his sister-in-law. 

Anne, second daughter of James 11. was mar- 
ri'^d to prince George of Denmark, July, 1683 
-—crowned April, 1702 — lost her son George by 
a fever, July, 1703 — settled her revenue of the 
first-fruits and tenths on the poorer clergy, 1 704 
— assented to the act of union with Scotland, 
March, 1707 — lost her husband, October, 1708 
^ — died of an apoplexy, August, 1714 — was buri- 
ed at Westminster, and succeeded by, 

George I. elector of Hanover, (see James I.) 
— married Sophia, daughter of the duke of 
Brunswick-Zell, 1682 — created duke of Cam- 
bridge, October, 1706 — proclaimed in August, 
and landed at Greenwich, in September, and was 
crowned, in October, 1714 — his queen died in 
Germany, November, 1726 — he died of a para- 
lytic disorder at Osnaburg, June, 1727 — was 
buried at Hanover, and succeeded by his son, 

George II. — married the princess Wilhelmi- 
na Caroline Dorothea of Brandenburg-Anspach, 
1704 — crowned October, 1727 — married his son, 
Frederick, to Augusta, princess of Saxe-Gotha, 
April, 1736 — ^losthis queen, November, 1737- — 
defeated the French at Dettingen, June, 1743 — 

Q 



182 POLITE LEARNING, 

lost his son Frederick, March, 1751— died sud- 
denly at Kensington, October, 1760— was buried 
at Westminster, and succeeded by his grandson. 
4iGE0RGE III. who was proclaimed in October, 
1760 — married Charlotte Sophia, princess of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, September, 1761 — and 
both crowned September following — died, and 
was succeeded by his son, 

George IV., who was proclaimed king, Jan 
uary 31, 1821, and now reigns. 

PHYSIC. 

Q. What is Physic ? 

A. Physic, or Medicine, is the knowledge of 
those things, by the application of which, the 
body is either preserved in a healthy state, or re- 
stored thereto when disordered. 

Q. How is the word Physic derived ? 

A. The word Physic is derived from a Greek 
word \^phusis] signifying nature; because med- 
icine consists, principally, in the observation of 
nature. 

Q. What are the principal branches of this 
science ? 

A. The principal branches of Physic are. An- 
atomy, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and Bot- 
any. 

Q. What is Anatomy ? 

A. Anatomy is the art of dissecting the solid 
parts of the human body ; in order to discover 
their structure and* economy, their office and 
use, and their concern in health or in disease. 



PHYSIC. 1S3 

It is of use, not only in medicine^ but also in 
statuary and painting. 

Q. What is Surgery ? 

A. Surgery is a branch of the healing art, and 
consists in manual operations, by the aid of suit- 
able instruments, for the cure of wounds, dislo- 
cations, fractures, tumours, ulcers, and the like. 
It has the advantage of medicine, in the solidity 
of its foundation, the certainty i^f its operations, 
and the sensibility of its effects. 

Q. What is Pharmacy ? 

A. Pharmacy teaches the choice, prepara- 
tion, and mixture of medicines ; and consists 
in the knowledge and management of the sev- 
eral parts of the materia medica, now in the 
hands of the apothecaries. 

Q. What is Chemistry ? 

A. Chemistry is the art of separating the 
several substances of w^hich mixed bodies are 
composed, and of composing other bodies by 
the mixture of different ingredients: or, 

Chemistry is the art of analizing natural bodies, 
or reducing them to their first principles, and 
thereby discovering their hidden virtues; with a 
view to philosophy, physic, and domestic uses. 

Q. Is not Chemistry, then, a very useful and 
extensive science } 

A. Yes; all bodies contained in the vegetable, 
animal, and mineral kingdoms, come under the 
notice of Chemistry; and decoctions, infusions, 
exhalations, calcinations, distillations, crystalli- 
zations, elixirs, tinctures, &c. are the results of 
its operations. 



184 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. What is Botany ? 

A. Botany is that science which treats of 
plants, with their varieties, forms, virtues, and 
uses in medicine, and other affairs of life. 

The grand divisions of the vegetable family, 
are the herbaceous, the shrubby, and the arbor- 
escent, or tree. 

But the great naturalist, Linnseus, in his class- 
ification founded^*on the sexual system, extends 
the divisions of vegetables into 24. 

All the varieties of grain, wood, hemp, flax, 
cotton, sugar-cane, tea, coffee, spices, &c. come 
under the notice of this science, which is one of 
the most pleasing that can occupy the human 
mind. 

Q. You mentioned the vegetable, animal, and 
mineral kingdoms: what are they? 

A. Naturalists, in order to give some arrange- 
ment to the numerous objects claiming their at- 
tention, have divided the productions of this 
globe hi to three great classes, which they de- 
nominate the three kingdoms of nature: 

1. The vegetable kingdom; as above men- 
tioned, and comprehending whatever vegetates, 
or grows out of the earth; having root, stem, or 
leaf, flower, fruit, or seed. 

2. The animal kingdom: embracing all or- 
ganized beings; possessing life, sensation, and 
the power of motion. And, 

3. The mineral kingdom : comprehending 
all bodies destitute of animal or vegetable life; 
which are thus claf-sed. 1. Earths and stones; 



CHEMISTRY. 185 

2. salts; 3. inflammables; and 4. metallic sub- 
stances or ores. This last branch of Natural His- 
tory is called Mineralogy. [See folio 40.] 

CHEMISTRY. 

Q. What is Chemistry ? 

A. Chemistry is that science which teaches us 
how to ascertain the nature and properties of 
bodies. 

Q. By what means, may the nature and prop- 
erties of bodies be ascertained ? 

A. The nature and properties of bodies may 
be ascertained by analysis^ or decomposition, 
and synthesis^ or composition. 

Q. How many kinds of bodies are there? 

A. There are only two kinds of bodies — 
simple or elementary, and compoihid. A sim- 
pit or elementary body, is one that consists of 
(5nly one kind of substance; and is therefore in- 
capable of decom^position ; as caloric, gold, car- 
bon, &c. A compound body is such as consists 
of more than one simple, or elementary body ; 
as air, water, &c. 

Q. How many simple bodies do modern 
chemists enumerate ? 

A. Modern chemists enumerate nearly fifty 
simple bodies; a few of which are the following: 
light, caloric, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, 
carbon, sulphur, phosphorus; (two alkalies,) 
jwtash and soda; (nine earths,) lime, magnesia, 
strontiteSy barytes, silex, &c. (twenty-five met- 

2Q 



186 POLITE LEARNING, ' 

als,) goldy platina^ silver ^ mercury y coppery 
iroTiy tiriy lead, nickhy zinCy &c. 

Q. What is understood by the term Affinity, 
among Chemists ? 

A. Jlffinity is that particular tendency which 
the constituent parts of bodies have to blend or 
unite with each other. When this tendency ex- 
ists between bodies of the same nature, it is 
called the affinity or a tlr action of aggregation; 
when between bodies of different natures, it is 
denominated the affinity of compositiotiy or 
chemical affinity. 

Note. As the affinity , or attraction of ag- 
gregation, unites particles of similar natures, 
without changing their original properties, the 
result of such a union, must be a body of the 
same kind as the particles of which it is com- 
posed: but, tfie compound formed by the chemi- 
cal union of dissimilar particles, will possess 
properties totally different from those of its con- 
stituent principles. Sulphuric acid and soday 
for instance, though two powerfully corrosive 
substances, form, when united, the mild and 
cooling glauher salts, 

Q. Is not chemical affinity stronger between 
some substances than others '^, 

A. Chemical affinity is much stronger between 
some substances than others. For instance, salt 
and water being put together, will unite, because 
they have an affinity for each other; but, if a 
third substance be added, as alcohol, (spirits of 
wine) for which the water has a stronger affinity 
than for salt, it will quit the salt which it holds 



CHEMISTRY- 187 

in solution, and unite with the alcohol; leaving 
the salt precipitated or fallen to the bottom of 
the vessel. 

Q. In how many states, may bodies exist ? 

A. Bodies may exist in three states; solidj 
fluids and aeriform. Thus, ice is water, in a 
solid form ; apply a moderate heat, it becomes a 
fluid — water ; apply a strong heat, and it as- 
sumes the aeriform state — steam or vapour. 

Q. What is Light ? 

A. Light is a simple substance, divisible, by 
the prism, into seven primitive colours; viz. 
red^ orangey yellow^ greeny blue, indigo, and 
violet. It is refrangible, and has considerable 
influence on many chemical operations. Solar 
light is here spoken of. 

Vegetables derive their colour, taste, and 
odour, from light; hence, warm climates are the 
most productive of aromatic plants, gums, &c. 

The leaves of vegetables yield oxygen, or 
vital air, during the day ; but emit noxious air 
at night. 

Q. What have you to say of heat or caloric? 

A. The matter of heat or caloric, is an ex- 
tremely subtle fluid, that enters, with facility, 
and pervades, all substances exposed to its in- 
fluence; and always tends to equilibrium. 

The powers of attraction, uncontrolled, would 
surround us with only solid compact bodies: it 
is to the opposing agency of caloric, we are in- 
debted for the varieties of consistence, under 
which bodies present themselves to our observa- 
tion. When attraction or cohesion prevails, 
R 



188 POLITE LEARNING, 

bodies are seen in a solid state: when caloric 
predominates, in a small degree, they are in a 
liquid form; but, when in a high degree, they 
generally assume the gaseous^ or aeriform state. 

Q. Does caloric pass with equal facility 
through all substances ? 

A. No; caloric passes rapidly through metals, 
less freely through wood or glass, and still more 
slowly through any woolen substance. Hence, 
these, and other bodies, are called good or bad 
conductors, accordingly as they receive or trans- 
mit this fluid more or less rapidly. 

Q. Is there not a diversity in the capacity of 
bodies, for receiving caloric ? 

A. There is a diversity in the capacity of 
bodies for receiving caloric: place, for instance, 
an equal weight of lead, of chalk, and of milky 
in a heated oven, and each will require a difier- 
ent quantum of caloric to raise it to the temper- 
ature of the oven. The lead will receive least ; 
the chalk next; and the milk most. 

Note. When a body passes from a solid to a 
fluid, or from a fluid to a gaseous state, calo- 
ric is absorbed, and becomes latent in the ab- 
sorbing body. When, on the contrary, a body 
passes from a gaseous to a fluid, or from a fluid 
to a solid state, heat is given out, and becomes 
sensible heat. 

Q. We often hear the term gas; as oxygen 
gas, hydrogen gas. Sac, — pray what is a gas? 

A. A gas is an aeriform fluid; consisting of 
some substance chemically combined with calo- 
ric, and capable of existing permanently in this 



CHEMISTRY, 189 

state, under the pressure, and at the temperature 
of the atmosphere. Every individual gas is, 
therefore composed of two parts ; first, the par- 
ticular substance with which the caloric is com- 
bined, and which forms the basis of the gas; 
and, secondly, the caloric itself 

Q. Is not water, then, or any other substance, 
when evaporated by heat, properly called a gas? 

A. No ; in m.ere vapour, the union of the 
caloric, with the substance evaporated, is so 
slight, that the caloric seizes and enters the first 
colder body it meets, and leaves the substance 
held in solution, to return to its original form. 
But, in gaSy the union of caloric with the basis, 
or volatilized substance, is such, as no tempera- 
ture of the atmosphere can affect. 

This union can be destroyed only by the ap- 
plication of some chemical agent, which has a 
stronger affinity for one of the constituents of 
the gas, than they have for each other. Every 
gas is intangible, elastic, and invisible. 

All bodies, whether solid or liquid, when vol- 
atilized by heat, assume either the state of va- 
pour ^ or that of gas, 

Q. What is Oxygen? 

A. Oxygeuj though proved by experiment to 
be a simple, and very generally diffused principle, 
has never been found in a separate state. It is, 
therefore, known only by its effects. Several 
substances, when combined with oxygen, form 
acids ; and many acids, on being deprived of 
their oxygen, cease to be such: hence, it is in- 
ferred, that oxygen is the acidifying principle. 



k' 



190 POLITE LEARNING. 

Q. Please to give me some account of oxygen 
gOSy or vital air^ as it is sometimes called. 

A. Oxygen gas is more ponderous than at- 
mospheric air, of which, it forms more than 
one fourth part: it is essential to combustion, to 
animal life, and to the growth of plants ; it ex- 
ists in water, in the proportion of 85 in 100 
parts; is found combined with many of the 
metals, and is a constituent principle in the 
greater number, if not in all, vegetable and ani- 
mal substances. 

Oxygen gas is obtained from nitre, by distil- 
lation; and also from the black oxyde of man- 
ganese, moistened with sulphuric acid, and ex- 
posed to heat. A variety of beautiful and inter- 
esting experiments are made with this gas. 

In every combustion, there is an absorption 
of oxygen — a disengagement of light, and heat, 
and an increase of weight, in the products of 
combustion, equal to the weight of the oxygen 
absorbed. 

Q. What is Nitrogen ? 

A. Nitrogen or azote, is the radical of the 
nitric acid; and, like oxygen, is never found 
but in a state of combination. 

Nitrogen gas is a combination of nitrogen 
with caloric. It is lighter than atmospheric air: 
of which it forms 77 parts in a hundred. It 
immediately extinguishes animal life, or a light- 
ed taper immersed in it. 

The best method of obtaining nitrogen gaSy 
is, to expose a quantity of atmospheric air in a 
vessel, inverted over a mixture of iron filings 



CHEMISTRY. 191 

and sulphur. The oxygen will be absorbed, and 
the nitrogen gas, or azote, left behind. 

Q. What kind of substance is Hydrogen ? 

A. Hydrogen is not to be obtained in its pure, 
concrete state. We are acquainted with it, 
therefore, only in its gaseous form, as we are 
with oxygen and nitrogen. 

Hydrogen ga^, or, as it is more commonly 
called, inflammable air, is a component part 
of water: it is twelve times lighter than common 
air; will not^ when alone, support combustion; 
and is destructive to animal life. In contact 
with common air, it burns brilliantly; and, 
mixed with a proportion of oxygen, explodes 
with great violence. 

Hydrogen gas is obtained, plentifully, by 
putting a quantity of small nails into a vial, cov- 
ering them with water, and gradually adding 
sulphuric acid. 

The oxygen of the water unites with the iron, 
and forms an oxyde of iron: this oxyde is dis- 
solved by the sulphuric acid, and sulphate of 
iron is produced ; while the hydrogen of the 
water escapes, in the form of gas, or inflam- 
mable air. 

This gas, combined with oxygen, and ignited, 
yields the strongest heat that can, in any way 
be produced. 

Q. What is Carbon ? 

A. It appears, from a variety of experiments, 
that the diamond is nothing more than pure 
Carbon, in a state of crystallization. 

Charcoal is Carbon; though in a less pure, 



192 POLITE LEARNING, 

and more imperfect state. Carbon is obtained 
from animal and vegetable substances, by com- 
bustion ; is unalterable and indestructible by 
time ; and, in close vessels, by the greatest heat. 

Q. What of Carbonic acid? 

A. Carbonic acid, or Jixed air^ is found in 
three states; viz. 1, in a state oi gas; as, in 
wells, tombs, cellars, &c. 2, in a state of mix- 
ture; as in mineral waters: and 3, in a state of 
combination; as, in limestone^ chalks^ marbhy 
magnesia, alkalies, &c. Carbonic acid gas 
consists of 28 parts of carbon and 72 of oxygen, 
with a portion of caloric. It is much heavier 
than atmospheric air, or than any of the other 
gases; so that it may be poured, as a liquid, 
from one vessel to another. It extinguishes 
flame, destroys animal life, turns blue vegetables, 
red, neutralizes alkalies, and precipitates lime- 
water. 

Carbonic acid gas is readily procured by 
pouring sulphuric acid, diluted with water, upon 
powdered chalk. The sulphuric acid unites with 
the chalk, and forms sulphate of lime (or plaster 
of Paris;) while the carbonic acid is disengaged, 
and escapes in the form of gas. 

Water may be made to absorb three times its 
own bulk of this gas; from which it acquires an 
agreeable, acidulous taste. 

Q. What have you to say of atmospheric, or 
common air? 

A. Atmospheric, or common air, is not, as 
has been supposed, a simple substance, but a 
compound body; consisting of about \ oxygen 



CHEMISTRY. 193 

gaSf and I nihogen gas^ with a small portion 
of carbonic acid gas, — say one hundreth part. 
It is iTWisible, ponderous^ inodoroiiSy elastic^ 
and insipid. 

A considerable portion of this air is decom- 
posed in its passage through the lungs, during 
respiration. The oxygen of the air unites with 
the blood, and gives it a bright vermilion colour. 
This is gradually lost, during the circulation; 
and the blood, assuming a dark purple, returns 
through the veins, to the lungs: where, it again 
takes its florid hue, from fresh supplies of oxy- 
gen. The oxygen, thus taken into the circula- 
tion, gradually evolves caloric, as it passes 
through the system; hence, what is called ani- 
mal heat, 

A person, breathing, exhausts the oxygen of 
one gallon of atmospheric air, in one minute; 
and the same quantity will support the combus- 
tion of an ordinary candle for the same length 
of time, and no longer. 

Q. What is v/ater ? 

A. Water is a transparent fluid; composed of 
15 parts of hydrogen gas, and S5 of oxygen 
gas, by weight; or 2 of hydroggn to 1 of oxygen, 
in bulk. If these two gases^e mixed in these 
proportions, and fired by means of an electric 
spark, a quantity of water will be generated, 
just equal, in weight, to the ga3os. Water ex- 
ists in almost all bodies, of the animal, vegetable, 
and mineral kingdoms. At 32 degrees of Fah- 
renheit's thermometer, water is frozen; above 



194 POLITE LEARNING. 

this temperature, it assumes a liquid form; and 

at 212° it is conv^erted into vapour. *Jt 

River, or even rain water, though purer than 
any other, is never found entirely free from a 
portion of salts, acids, &c. but may be purified 
by distillation. 

Water, by passing through an ignited iron 
tube, will be decomposed ; the oxygen will unite 
with the iron, and the hydrogen will escape, in 
the form of gas. But a better mode of decom- 
posing it, is that mentioned for obtaining hydro- 
gen gas, 

Q. What is Sulphur ? 

A. Sulphur is a simple substance, of an orange 
yellow colour. It burns with a blue flame, and 
exhales a strong, penetrating odour. 

Sulphur burned with substances containing 
oxygen, forms sulphuric acid: which acid, uni- 
ted to certain bases, forms salts, called sulphates ; 
as, sulphate ofsoda^ or Glauber salt; sulphate 
of potashj &c. 

Q. What kind of substance is Phosphorus ? 

A. Phosphorus is a substance of the consist- 
ence of wax, of a flesh colour, and, when pure, 
transparent. It^s luminous in the dark, and 
soluble in alcohof, and in the essential oils. It 
is procured from bones, which contain phosphate 
of lime. 

Phosphorus takes fire at about 100 degrees of 
Fahrenheit. It then combines with the oxygen 
of the atmosphere, and y'loXAs phosphoric acid, 

Q. What of Alkalies'? 

A. Alkalies have an acrid, unpleasant taste; 



CHEMISTRY. 195 

change blue vegetable colours into green, (indigo 
excepted;) effervesce with some acids; and, by 
combination with them, form neutral salts with 
all. They render oils miscible with water, 
in forming soaps. 

Q. How many fixed alkalies are there ? 

A. There are two fixed alkalies ; potash^ or 
the vegetable alkali^ and soda^ or the mineral 
alkali. There is also a volatile alkali — am- 
moniac. 

The vegetable alkali^ potash, according to 
Sir Humphrey Davy, the celebrated English 
chemist, is composed of oxygen, and a metallic 
basis, called by him potasium,. It is obtained 
from the ashes of vegetables, and from the lees 
of wine. 

The mineral alkali^ soda, is found in a native 
state, in Egypt, but is generally obtained from 
the ashes of marine plants. It is said, by Davy, 
to be similar in its formation to potash; having 
for its basis a metal, which he has named so- 
dium,. 

Alkalies readily combine with sulphur. If pure 
liquid alkali be digested upon sulphur, the mix- 
ture becomes reddish, and is called liver of sul- 
phur ^ or sulphur et of alkali. This liver of 
sulphur dissolves metals; even gold itself. 

Vegetable and mineral alkalies have the prop- 
erty of forming glass, with silex; without being 
volatilized by heat. 

The volatile alkali^ ammoniac or hartshorn, 
is composed of 193 parts of hydrogen and 807 
of nitrogen, in 1000. It is usually obtained by 



196 POLITE LEARNING. 

the distillation of animal substances; as, hoofs, 
horns, bones, &e. 

Q. What are the constituents of alcohol? 

A. Alcohol,, or spirits ofwine^is a compound 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 

Q. Of what do oils consist ? 

A. Oils consist of carbon and hydrogen; and 
are divided into fixed and volatile. The former 
are obtained by expression — the latter, by dis- 
tillation. 

Q. How are acids formed } 

A. Acids are formed by the combination of 
oxygen with certain bases, which give name t6 
the compound: as, nitric acid; which is com 
posed of about 80 parts of oxygen, and 20 of 
nitrogen. 

Q. What are the general properties of acids ? 

A. Acids have a sour, s tip tic taste ; effervesce 
with alkalies, and change blue vegetable colours 
into red, indigo excepted. They are about forty 
in number, 

Q. What kind of substance is alumiiie? 

A. Alumine, or pure clay^ is soft to the 
touch, and adhesive to the tongue; forms a paste 
with water, dissolves in every acid, hardens and 
contracts by fire, and is twice the weight of 
water. 

Q. How are metallic substances distinguished? 

A. Metals are distinguished by their gravity, 
their opacity, or their brilliancy. They are 
found in the bowels of the earth, in a native or 
virgin state ; in a state of oxydatipn, or of com* 
bination. 



CHEMISTRY. 197 

All metals are soluble in acids ; and being 
so dissolved, they form metallic salts. 

Gold, silver, and platina, are considered as 
perfect metals^ being oxydized with more diffi- 
culty than the others; which are called imper- 
fect metals. (See mineralogy.) 

Q. What are Vegetables? 

A. Vegetables are organized, living substan- 
ces; possessing digestive and secreting organs. 
Vegetables may be considered as the lowest or- 
der of animated existences. Like animals, they 
digest their food, and propagate their species. 
They will grow and vegetate in air in which an- 
imals have perished. This fact evinces, that, 
though light is essential to their proper growth, 
yet, atmospheric air is not. 

The constituent principles of vegetables are 
more numerous and complicated than those of 
minerals. They are defended by a general cov- 
ering, of bark; which is analogous to the skin 
of animals, and consists of three parts— the cu- 
ticle^ the cellular^ and the corticle. 

The leaves perform an important office in the 
economy of vegetables; and have been compared 
to the lungs of animals. They extract, from the 
atmosphere, the same principles which the roots 
draw from the earth. 

Q. What does the term, animal, imply ? 

A. The term animal, in a general sense, is 
applied to every thing that is supposed to be 
alive to the sensations of pleasure and pain. 
Such are, men, quadrupeds,, birds ^ fishes , rep^ 
tilesy and insects. 



1 98 POLITE LEARNING. 

Linnaeus says, that stones grow; vegetables 
grow and live ; animals grow, live, and feel. 

The constituent radical principles of animals, 
are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, lime, 
and phosphorus. 

Having thus briefly touched upon a very few 
of the numerous subjects of chemical investiga- 
tion, we conclude this article, by observing, that 
there is, perhaps, no branch of science which 
more wonderfully displays the extent of the Di- 
vine wisdom and goodness than this; and which, 
at the same time, is more calculated to interest 
and gratify the inquisitive mind. 

Note. This brief abstract is here introduced, 
principally, with a view of awaking, in youth, 
a spirit of inquiry ; and, thereby, leading them 
to a more minute and useful investigation of tlie 
various objects by which they are surrounded. 



THE END. 



3»477-7 



